ABSTRACT Power transformers are key components for electrical energy transfer in a power system. Stability and security of transformer protection are important to system operation. Many maloperation cases of transformer differential protection are caused by inrush current problems. The phenomenon of transformer inrush current has been widely discussed in literature. Therefore, this research only discussed and analyzed inrush current problems to transformer differential protection. To understand the inrush current problems on differential protection, transformer simulation models were presented using Matlab/Simulink. Differential relay simulations for internal and external faults, and relay performance during current transformer saturation were performed using PSCAD. Recommendations were made on methods of reducing the blocking time of differential protection during inrush conditions.

Transformers are essential components facilitating transmission and distribution of electric power. Energisation of transformers, however, can cause core operating at deep saturation region and thereby induce transient inrush currents of high magnitude and with rich harmonics. This can lead to undesirable effects including potential damage to the transformer itself, relay mal-operation, harmonic resonant overvoltages, and reduced power quality in the system (mainly in the form of voltage dips). This thesis investigates voltage dips caused by energising generator step-up (GSU) transformers and two types of generation connection are studied: one is a combine cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant connected to a 400 kV transmission grid and the other is a large offshore wind farm connected to a 132 kV distribution grid. To carry out the investigation, detailed network models were developed in alternative transients program/electromagnetic transients program (ATP/EMTP) and validated with the help of field measurements. For the connection of generation in the transmission grid, deterministic assessment was conducted to comparatively analyse voltage dips caused by energising large GSU transformers under different energisation conditions and different network conditions; special attention was paid to the energisation cases involving sympathetic inrush between transformers by addressing its prolonging effects on voltage dips, with sensitivity studies further carried out to identify the key influential parameters. In addition, stochastic assessment was conducted by applying Monte Carlo method, which helps identify the dip frequency pattern and the likelihood of reaching the dip magnitude resulted from the commonly agreed worst case energisation condition; their sensitivities to the variation of circuit breaker closing time span, transformer core residual flux, system condition and the number of transformers being energized together were also investigated. Furthermore, possible cost-effective operational approaches to mitigate the voltage dips were explored and compared. For the connection of large offshore wind farm, voltage dips caused by energising wind turbine transformers under different scenarios were assessed; in particular, sympathetic inrush between wind turbine transformers were studied, and the energisation sequence resulting in less sympathetic inrush was deterministically identified and stochastically validated. The simulation results of deterministic studies indicate that, when carrying out energisation of a large GSU transformer in the transmission grid under the commonly agreed worst case energisation condition, the dip magnitude can reach 9.6% and the duration 2.7 seconds; moreover, when coupled with sympathetic inrush, the duration can be prolonged by 136%, lasting for 6.4 seconds. The sensitivity studies show that transformer core saturation inductance is the key parameter determining dip magnitude and transformer copper losses is the key parameter determining dip duration. Stochastic assessment of voltage dips shows that, out of 1000 stochastic dip events, less than 0.5% of the dips can reach the worst case dip magnitude and about 80% are of magnitudes less than 0.6 pu of the worst case dip magnitude; the dip frequency pattern is found to be insensitive to the circuit breaker closing time variation but can be considerably influenced by the residual flux distribution. In terms of mitigation measures, it was proven that, by adjusting tap changer position, applying static var compensator and even opening coupler circuit breaker in the substation, the degree of voltage dip especially the dip duration can be significantly reduced. Contrasting to those observed in the transmission grid, voltage dips resulted from energising wind turbine transformers in large offshore wind farms are of less concern; dip magnitudes are no more than 1% in the case of energising a stand-alone wind turbine transformer. However, sympathetic inrush between wind turbine transformers within one feeder was found to be significant and the energisation sequence resulting in less sympathetic inrush is to separately energise the wind turbine transformer from the one closest to the offshore platform to the one farthest away from the platform.

Este trabalho apresenta uma aplicação de redes neurais artificiais (RNAs) na proteção diferencial de transformadores de potência, como um método para distinguir formas de onda que podem confundir a operação do relé. Vários fatores como, por exemplo, as situações de energização do transformador, podem causar uma má operação do dispositivo de proteção. Com o objetivo de melhoramento na proteção diferencial digital de transformadores de potência, desenvolveu-se um sistema completo de proteção, incluindo um dispositivo com base em RNAs, em substituição à filtragem harmônica dos sinais, existentes no algoritmo convencional. Com a referida adição de RNAs em um algoritmo completo de proteção diferencial de transformadores, obteve-se uma solução bastante precisa e eficiente, capaz de responder em um tempo reduzido, se comparada aos métodos convencionais. / This work presents an application of artificial neural networks (ANNs) in differential protection of transformers as an alternative method to distinguish among wave forms which can cause malfunction to the relay. One of the several factors that can cause malfunction is the inrush current present when the transfonner is energized. In order to improve the differential protection of the power transformers, the authors added a neural network routine to the conventional differential protection algorithm, in substitution to the filtering of the harmonic signals found on the traditional algorithm. By making this option, the authors obtained a more effective and precise solution, compared to the conventional methods.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar as correntes de inrush que surgem nos momentos de energização dos alimentadores de sistemas de distribuição. Desta forma, são relevantes em projetos cotidianos de concessionárias de energia elétrica como por exemplo, nos cálculos de ajustes dos dispositivos de proteção. Foram estudadas 291 (duzentas e noventa e uma) amostras extraídas de oscilografias de medidores alocados nas saídas de alimentadores de distribuição, os quais armazenaram informações de tais correntes nos momentos em que houveram religamentos bem sucedidos (carga quente), bem como em energizações após longos períodos de interrupção (carga fria). Todos os alimentadores analisados pertencem a AES-ELETROPAULO. Os valores (em magnitude) das correntes de inrush foram analisados nos primeiros instantes (16,66 ms e 100 ms) logo após o momento da energização dos alimentadores, sendo os valores estudados como variáveis probabilísticas. As análises desta dissertação fundamentaram-se na comparação dos dados oriundos de medição com os resultados de cálculo segundo o modelo tradicional (aplicação de fatores multiplicativos), na qual se observa uma clara majoração que tende a sobredimensionar os resultados das correntes. Desta forma este trabalho sugere a adoção de valores (ou faixa de valores) mais adequados e que tendem a garantir uma aproximação mais consistente com as medições. Comparando os valores (magnitude) dos fatores multiplicativos para as correntes de inrush entre carga quente e carga fria, verifica-se que as correntes de inrush em carga fria tendem a ser maiores do que em carga quente. Bem como em ambas as cargas, observa-se a relação direta de proporcionalidade do fator multiplicativo com a potência instalada dos alimentadores em termos dos transformadores de distribuição. / The purpose of this dissertation is to analyze the inrush currents generated upon the energization of distribution system feeders. These said currents are relevant for typical designs in electric power concessionaries, for example upon calculating the ideal settings for protection devices. It was analyzed (or studies) 291 (two hundred and ninety one) oscilography samples extracted from measuring devices oscilographs were analyzed. These devices were placed in the beggining of distribution feeders, and stored information on such currents both in successful reclosing (hot load) events and re-energization after long periods of outage (cold load) events. All feeders analyzed belong to the AES-Eletropaulo. The inrush current values (in magnitude) were analyzed right after (more specifically 16.66 ms and 100 ms) the feeder energization. For this reason, its corresponding values were studied as a probabilistic variables. This analysis was based on the comparison between measured data and traditional model (application of factor coefficients) calculation results, in this way, observed it that the traditional model yields over-dimensioned results which lead to oversizement of the results currents. It has thus suggested revised, more suitable values (or bands of values) which are bound to ensure a more consistent approximation to the real measurements. Upon comparing the final value (in magnitude) results on the analysis of the factor coefficients for inrush currents for hot load and cold load, it is observed that the cold load inrush currents tend to be higher than those for hot load. Furthermore, it was observed the direct relation of proportionality of the factor coefficients to the ratings capacity transformer power installed along the feeder lines.

The objective of this research is to advance the field of condition monitoring of electrolytic capacitors used in power electronics circuits. The construction process of an electrolytic capacitor is presented. Descriptions of various kinds of faults that can occur in an electrolytic capacitor are discussed. The methods available to detect electrolytic capacitor faults are discussed. The effects of the capacitor faults on the capacitor voltage and current waveforms are investigated through experiments. It is also experimentally demonstrated that faults in the capacitor can be detected by monitoring the capacitor voltage and current. Various ESR estimation based detection techniques available to detect capacitor failures in power electronics circuits are reviewed. Three algorithms are proposed to track and detect capacitor failures: an FFT based algorithm, a system modeling based detection scheme, and finally a parameter estimation based algorithm. The parameter estimation based algorithm is a low-cost real-time scheme, and it is inexpensive to implement. Finally, a detailed study is carried out to understand the failure mechanism of an electrolytic capacitor due to inrush current.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar as correntes de inrush que surgem nos momentos de energização dos alimentadores de sistemas de distribuição. Desta forma, são relevantes em projetos cotidianos de concessionárias de energia elétrica como por exemplo, nos cálculos de ajustes dos dispositivos de proteção. Foram estudadas 291 (duzentas e noventa e uma) amostras extraídas de oscilografias de medidores alocados nas saídas de alimentadores de distribuição, os quais armazenaram informações de tais correntes nos momentos em que houveram religamentos bem sucedidos (carga quente), bem como em energizações após longos períodos de interrupção (carga fria). Todos os alimentadores analisados pertencem a AES-ELETROPAULO. Os valores (em magnitude) das correntes de inrush foram analisados nos primeiros instantes (16,66 ms e 100 ms) logo após o momento da energização dos alimentadores, sendo os valores estudados como variáveis probabilísticas. As análises desta dissertação fundamentaram-se na comparação dos dados oriundos de medição com os resultados de cálculo segundo o modelo tradicional (aplicação de fatores multiplicativos), na qual se observa uma clara majoração que tende a sobredimensionar os resultados das correntes. Desta forma este trabalho sugere a adoção de valores (ou faixa de valores) mais adequados e que tendem a garantir uma aproximação mais consistente com as medições. Comparando os valores (magnitude) dos fatores multiplicativos para as correntes de inrush entre carga quente e carga fria, verifica-se que as correntes de inrush em carga fria tendem a ser maiores do que em carga quente. Bem como em ambas as cargas, observa-se a relação direta de proporcionalidade do fator multiplicativo com a potência instalada dos alimentadores em termos dos transformadores de distribuição. / The purpose of this dissertation is to analyze the inrush currents generated upon the energization of distribution system feeders. These said currents are relevant for typical designs in electric power concessionaries, for example upon calculating the ideal settings for protection devices. It was analyzed (or studies) 291 (two hundred and ninety one) oscilography samples extracted from measuring devices oscilographs were analyzed. These devices were placed in the beggining of distribution feeders, and stored information on such currents both in successful reclosing (hot load) events and re-energization after long periods of outage (cold load) events. All feeders analyzed belong to the AES-Eletropaulo. The inrush current values (in magnitude) were analyzed right after (more specifically 16.66 ms and 100 ms) the feeder energization. For this reason, its corresponding values were studied as a probabilistic variables. This analysis was based on the comparison between measured data and traditional model (application of factor coefficients) calculation results, in this way, observed it that the traditional model yields over-dimensioned results which lead to oversizement of the results currents. It has thus suggested revised, more suitable values (or bands of values) which are bound to ensure a more consistent approximation to the real measurements. Upon comparing the final value (in magnitude) results on the analysis of the factor coefficients for inrush currents for hot load and cold load, it is observed that the cold load inrush currents tend to be higher than those for hot load. Furthermore, it was observed the direct relation of proportionality of the factor coefficients to the ratings capacity transformer power installed along the feeder lines.

Este trabalho apresenta uma aplicação de redes neurais artificiais (RNAs) na proteção diferencial de transformadores de potência, como um método para distinguir formas de onda que podem confundir a operação do relé. Vários fatores como, por exemplo, as situações de energização do transformador, podem causar uma má operação do dispositivo de proteção. Com o objetivo de melhoramento na proteção diferencial digital de transformadores de potência, desenvolveu-se um sistema completo de proteção, incluindo um dispositivo com base em RNAs, em substituição à filtragem harmônica dos sinais, existentes no algoritmo convencional. Com a referida adição de RNAs em um algoritmo completo de proteção diferencial de transformadores, obteve-se uma solução bastante precisa e eficiente, capaz de responder em um tempo reduzido, se comparada aos métodos convencionais. / This work presents an application of artificial neural networks (ANNs) in differential protection of transformers as an alternative method to distinguish among wave forms which can cause malfunction to the relay. One of the several factors that can cause malfunction is the inrush current present when the transfonner is energized. In order to improve the differential protection of the power transformers, the authors added a neural network routine to the conventional differential protection algorithm, in substitution to the filtering of the harmonic signals found on the traditional algorithm. By making this option, the authors obtained a more effective and precise solution, compared to the conventional methods.

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Este trabalho apresenta um procedimento completo de simulação da proteção digital diferencial aplicada a transformadores de potência, visando o emprego deste à avaliação do comportamento de relés comercialmente disponíveis. Foi escolhido o software ATP (Alternative Transients Program) como ferramenta para a simulação de distintas situações sobre um sistema diferencial de proteção aplicado a um transformador de 25 MVA. Dentre as ocorrências evidenciadas, destacam-se: situações de faltas internas, faltas externas, situações de energização e energização com falta interna do transformador, condição de sobreexcitação e de saturação de TC (Transformador de Corrente). Cabe comentar que das simulações a real caracterização sobre o relé em teste, fez-se necessário todo um pré-processamento e análise da informação que será convenientemente abordada e justificada no trabalho apresentado, denotando-se um procedimento comum de teste a ser adotado a esta filosofia de proteção. A metodologia e esquema prático adotado trazem uma contribuição importante para a análise laboratorial de modelagens e simulações aplicadas a relés de proteção presentes no mercado e contribui de maneira substancial para os estudos teóricos de possíveis soluções para limitações eventualmente encontradas / This dissertation presents a complete procedure of simulation of digital differential protection applied to power transformers, focusing on its use to evaluate of the behavior of commercially available relays. Software ATP (Alternative Transients Program) was chosen as a tool for the simulation of distinct situations in a differential protection system applied to a 25 MVA three-phase transformer. Amongst the evidenced occurrences internal and external fault conditions, energization with or without internal fault of a three-phase transformer, overexcitation and CT (Current Transformer) saturation conditions were distinguished. It should be mentioned that from simulations to the characterization the real situations on the relay in test, a pre-processing and analysis of the information were necessary, and will be justified in the present study, denoting a common test procedure to be adopted to this philosophy of protection

Este trabalho apresenta um procedimento completo de simulação da proteção digital diferencial aplicada a transformadores de potência, visando o emprego deste à avaliação do comportamento de relés comercialmente disponíveis. Foi escolhido o software ATP (Alternative Transients Program) como ferramenta para a simulação de distintas situações sobre um sistema diferencial de proteção aplicado a um transformador de 25 MVA. Dentre as ocorrências evidenciadas, destacam-se: situações de faltas internas, faltas externas, situações de energização e energização com falta interna do transformador, condição de sobreexcitação e de saturação de TC (Transformador de Corrente). Cabe comentar que das simulações a real caracterização sobre o relé em teste, fez-se necessário todo um pré-processamento e análise da informação que será convenientemente abordada e justificada no trabalho apresentado, denotando-se um procedimento comum de teste a ser adotado a esta filosofia de proteção. A metodologia e esquema prático adotado trazem uma contribuição importante para a análise laboratorial de modelagens e simulações aplicadas a relés de proteção presentes no mercado e contribui de maneira substancial para os estudos teóricos de possíveis soluções para limitações eventualmente encontradas / This dissertation presents a complete procedure of simulation of digital differential protection applied to power transformers, focusing on its use to evaluate of the behavior of commercially available relays. Software ATP (Alternative Transients Program) was chosen as a tool for the simulation of distinct situations in a differential protection system applied to a 25 MVA three-phase transformer. Amongst the evidenced occurrences internal and external fault conditions, energization with or without internal fault of a three-phase transformer, overexcitation and CT (Current Transformer) saturation conditions were distinguished. It should be mentioned that from simulations to the characterization the real situations on the relay in test, a pre-processing and analysis of the information were necessary, and will be justified in the present study, denoting a common test procedure to be adopted to this philosophy of protection