<p> Growing demand for higher education has contributed to the popularity of online education. While online courses can be effective in terms of student learning and success, and there are many potential benefits, there are also still areas that can be improved. There is evidence that students can experience online courses as impersonal and lacking interaction. They can feel isolated, less satisfied, less successful, and are more likely to withdraw. Thus, one of the challenges facing online education is to find ways to increase connection and interaction between students and faculty.</p><p> One means for addressing the sense of isolation students might feel in online courses might be instructor immediacy. While instructor immediacy in traditional classes has been shown to motivate students, create a sense of connection, and support their learning and success, it is not known whether or how immediacy can help students in a fully online course.</p><p> The purpose of this quantitative quasi-experimental intervention study was to examine the effectiveness of faculty immediacy on undergraduate student engagement and success in an online course. Students in an upper division psychology course were randomly assigned to either a redesigned high immediacy section or a 'regular' section. The study's hypothesized framework suggested that instructor immediacy would enhance student engagement, and thereby influence student success.</p><p> A survey measured immediacy and student engagement; success was measured by total points earned. The sample included 215 students enrolled in the course in the fall 2012 semester. Independent samples <i>t-</i>tests, correlations, multiple regression, and repeated measures ANOVA were the statistical tests used.</p><p> The findings revealed no significant differences between the high immediacy (intervention section) and low immediacy (regular nonintervention group) sections of the course. Immediacy and engagement were highly correlated. Engagement was a significant predictor of student success. Age, units completed, and gender were also significant predictors of student success in this study. These results provide insight into the relationship between immediacy and engagement. Implications and recommendations based on the findings of this study are given. Further studies are recommended to further study the relationship between immediacy and engagement.</p>

<p>The purpose of this exploratory multi-case study was to examine the role of instructional design and instructor training on student learning outcomes and student satisfaction within the online class using group work, a form of collaborative learning. Group work has been strongly recommended for online classes. Data allowing insight into contemporary events in context were collected via an online survey, personal interviews, and document examination. Students were given a link to an online survey with both selected response and open-ended questions. Instructors were interviewed either face-to-face or via voice over Internet protocol (VOIP). Syllabi and class handouts were collected and examined using content analysis. These different sources of data were triangulated during the analyses. The participants in the study were undergraduate students and four instructors at a state supported institution of higher education in the southwestern United States. Data collected revealed that those instructors using group work who had the most training and assistance from the Instructional Technology Support in the design and facilitation of classes using group work had the highest level of student satisfaction as well as the highest student perception of good learning outcomes. The data show that when the instructional design using group work is well done and the class is well conducted, student satisfaction and student learning are good. The data show that the amount of instructor training undertaken had a major impact on how students reacted to the classes. The students' perception of learning outcomes differed from that of the instructors. The instructors perceived the classes as being generally successful; however, the students' perceptions were less positive. The levels of training applied by each of the faculty to the design of their online class shows that the more training, the higher the level of satisfaction. Both student success and learning outcomes suffer if the class is not designed and taught with best practices for online group work. Further research needs to be done on the use of online group work in graduate classes and lower division undergraduate classes as all of the studied classes were upper division. </p>

<p> This study explored the relation between two elementary school principals' behaviors and the professional development provided to educators in two schools undergoing pedagogical and cultural changes designed to increase student achievement. The researcher observed the schools' dynamics regarding professional development and any other professional and pedagogical discourse done for the purpose of collaborating and developing a structure in which data analysis, lesson planning and design, and other types of professional development are practiced. A qualitative method was used for this study and was based on a simple descriptive study using a multisite case study. Daniels (2009) conducted a research study on three schools in one school district. This study was an attempt to embody a similar study in two elementary schools (a K&ndash;3 school and a 4&ndash;8 school) in one district, though a different district from Daniels's study. The population in this study consisted of educators from two school sites located in a small, rural, and agricultural community that serve students in Grades K&ndash;8. The data collection demonstrated it is crucial to have a strong and competent principal who promotes and supports the change process in an effective and systematic manner. Additional results indicated that the use of strategic professional development fosters collegial teamwork whereby educators share their knowledge and guarantee continuous structural improvement that leads to increased student achievement.</p>

<p> This hermeneutic phenomenological study explores what students experience and how students experience the phenomenon of high-stakes testing (HST) education. The research aimed to add to current research the missing voices of students and to explore the need to include the social&ndash;emotional impact of education in the narrative of HST education. The study's intent was to help educators comprehend the full spectrum of the impact HST education has on students and the role that educators and other stakeholders play in creating that experience. </p><p> The study includes a comprehensive understanding of how students of today consider passing a test and learning are one and the same by examining how students position themselves as consumers of education over creators of their education. Moreover, the research examines how values and beliefs of the school affect students' outlook on education. Finally, a critical review of how HST phenomenon denies low-performing students real opportunity. This research validates the idea that standardizing learning and its results are fundamentally flawed if the intent is to create real opportunity for all students. The study concludes with practical recommendations to help reestablish school ideals and real opportunities for all students.</p>

<p> Computer Adaptive Tests (CATs) have been used successfully with standardized tests. However, CATs are rarely practical for assessment in instructional contexts, because large numbers of examinees are required a priori to calibrate items using item response theory (IRT). Computerized Classification Tests (CCTs) provide a practical alternative to IRT-based CATs. CCTs show promise for instructional contexts, since many fewer examinees are required for item parameter estimation. However, there is a paucity of clear guidelines indicating when items are sufficiently calibrated in CCTs. </p><p> Is there an efficient and accurate CCT algorithm which can estimate item parameters adaptively? Automatic Racing Calibration Heuristics (ARCH) was invented as a new CCT method and was empirically evaluated in two studies. </p><p> Monte Carlo simulations were run on previous administrations of a computer literacy test, consisting of 85 items answered by 104 examinees. Simulations resulted in determination of thresholds needed by the ARCH method for parameter estimates. These thresholds were subsequently used in 50 sets of computer simulations in order to compare accuracy and efficiency of ARCH with the sequential probability ratio test (SPRT) and with an enhanced method called EXSPRT. In the second study, 5,729 examinees took an online plagiarism test, where ARCH was implemented in parallel with SPRT and EXSPRT for comparison. </p><p> Results indicated that new statistics were needed by ARCH to establish thresholds and to determine when ARCH could begin. The ARCH method resulted in test lengths significantly shorter than SPRT, and slightly longer than EXSPRT without sacrificing accuracy of classification of examinees as masters and nonmasters. </p><p> This research was the first of its kind in evaluating the ARCH method. ARCH appears to be a viable CCT method, which could be particularly useful in massively open online courses (MOOCs). Additional studies with different test content and contexts are needed.</p>

<p> Students in developmental education face three types of barriers: institutional, situational, and affective. Current interventions focus on addressing institutional barriers; however, continuing low success and retention rates indicate a need for additional measures. Bandura's theory of academic self-efficacy provides a way to address the affective barriers faced by this student population. This study examines the impact of a series of three five-minute student success videos, based on the social modeling aspect of self-efficacy theory and developed using the Dick and Carey instructional design model, on the academic self-efficacy, retention, and success of developmental education students. A quasi-experimental research design was used to examine the effectiveness of the social modeling intervention. </p><p> Results from this study indicate that an intervention designed using academic self-efficacy as an underlying theory and the Dick and Carey model of instructional design as a creation and implementation guide did not have a significant impact on the academic self-efficacy of students enrolled in developmental education courses. Moreover, the intervention did not have an impact on success and retention rates. Additional analysis indicates that academic self-efficacy was not a significant predictor of either student success or retention. Further research regarding the link between academic self-efficacy and student success and retention at the developmental level is necessary. </p>

<p> The prevalence of mobile technology, particularly the mobile phone, is changing the manner in which individuals communicate, access information, conduct business, teach, learn, and cultivate relationships. These technologies have charged stakeholders in both the business and the educational arena with the challenge of embracing mobile phone use and leveraging it as a learning tool. Researchers and educators are exploring the concept of integrating mobile phones into classroom instruction to enhance academic experiences for students, engage them in the learning process, and find new ways of extending learning beyond the school walls. Although this topic of research is in the infancy stage, emerging evidence supports the utilization of mobile phone technology, indicates it can successfully be leveraged in the academic setting and is rapidly becoming the technology of choice. This study contributes to the developing research in the field of integrating mobile phones into the classroom setting as high school teachers and students express their perceptions regarding how mobile phones are currently being utilized in the classroom to support instruction and whether future practices should support integration. </p><p> Data gathered from this study indicate the teacher and student participants support mobile phone access and utilization both in and out of the classroom and value the devices as an instructional resource. Further, in this study participants offer solutions to the perceived challenges that may occur as mobile devices are implemented in the school setting in order to ensure meaningful and successful mobile phone usage. Collectively, teacher and student participants encourage a shift in current educational pedagogy which will support 21st century learning through the use of mobile phones in the educational arena.</p>

<p> The purpose of this study is to determine the perceived technology capabilities of different levels of undergraduate students of Kent State University in the College of Education, Health, and Human Services teacher education programs; to determine if the perceived technology capabilities of students beginning the teacher education program differ from those nearing completion of the program; and, if the perceived technology capabilities of students change from the start to the end of the Educational Technology course. Examining student perceptions may provide insight on whether preservice teachers think they can prepare students for the 21^st century once they become inservice teachers. To determine whether preservice teachers perceive that they are being prepared to teach 21^st century skills by integrating technology into teaching and learning, three groups of students were surveyed: incoming students, junior-level students at the beginning and end of the Educational Technology course, and students nearing graduation. The TPACK survey for preservice teachers (Schmidt, Baran, Thompson, Mishra, Koehler &amp; Shin, 2009) was used to examine preservice teachers' perceptions of their technology capabilities as related to teaching.</p><p> Teachers comprise an integral factor in the effective incorporation of technology into classroom activities, yet many current teachers remain unable or unwilling to employ technology fully or effectively. The findings from this study led to several conclusions, including that the students perceived themselves to have better technological abilities after completing the Educational Technology course and as seniors near the end of the teacher education program, and the results of this study should challenge teacher education faculty to consider how their beliefs, attitudes, and use of technology in teaching and learning are transmitted to their students.</p>

<p> The purpose of the study was to compare 2D and 3D visual presentation styles, both still frame and animation, on subjects' brain activity measured by the amplitude of EEG alpha wave and on their recall to see if alpha power and recall differ significantly by depth and movement of visual presentation style and by spatial intelligence. In addition, the study sought to determine whether there is any significant interaction between spatial intelligence and visual presentation style on alpha power and recall, and to determine whether any relationship exists between alpha power and recall. </p><p> The subjects in the present study were one hundred and twenty three undergraduate students at a university in the Midwest. After taking Vandenberg &amp; Kuse's Mental Rotations Test, subjects were divided into low and high spatial intelligence groups, and subjects in each spatial intelligence group were evenly assigned to four different types of visual presentation style (2D still frame, 2D animation, 3D still frame, and 3D animation), receiving an instruction on LASIK eye surgical procedure in its respective visual presentation style. During the one-minute visual instruction, subjects' brain activity was measured and recorded using a wireless EEG headset. Upon completion of the instruction, subjects were given a 10-item multiple-choice test to measure their recall of the material presented during the instruction. </p><p> Two 2 (spatial intelligence) x 2 (depth) x 2 (movement) factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were conducted, one with alpha power as a dependent variable and the other with recall as a dependent variable, to determine whether there is a significant difference in alpha power and recall by spatial intelligence and visual presentation style, as well as whether there is an interaction between these variables that affects alpha power and recall. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was calculated to examine relationship between alpha power and recall. </p><p> The present study found (a) EEG alpha power did not differ by the difference in depth and movement, (b) 2D and animation were found to be more effective on recall, (c) alpha power did not differ by spatial intelligence, (d) recall did not differ by spatial intelligence, (e) there was a significant interaction between spatial intelligence and movement that affected alpha power; still frame resulted in higher alpha power for low spatial learners, and animation resulted in higher alpha power for high spatial learners, (f) there was a significant interaction between spatial intelligence, depth and movement on recall; for low spatial learners, 2D animation resulted in significantly higher recall than both 2D still frame and 3D animation, and for high spatial learners, 3D animation resulted in significantly higher recall than 3D still frame, and both 2D still frame and 2D animation resulted in close to significantly higher recall than 3D still frame, and (g) there was a mildly inverse relationship between alpha power and recall, brought on by a strong inverse relationship in 2D still frame revealing a 'higher alpha power-lower recall connection' for low spatial learners and a 'lower alpha power-higher recall connection' for high spatial learners.</p>

<p> <b>Purpose.</b> The purpose of this sequential, mixed-methods exploratory case study of early childhood professionals was threefold. First, determine if a relationship exists between a learner&rsquo;s readiness toward directed (DL) and self-directed learning (SDL) style and the perception of their inclination toward directed or self-directed learning, when given a choice of the two. Second, examine how self-selection of DL or SDL relates to learning achievement. Third, detect motivation of individual&rsquo;s selection in directed or self-directed learning.</p><p> <b>Methodology.</b> Quantitative methods in the form of survey assessment were employed to determine 52 participants&rsquo; perceived inclination for SDL compared to their diagnosed readiness for SDL using the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS). A pretest/posttest assessment determined achievement of skill in identifying content presented in training. Qualitative data were gathered through semistructured interviews of 24 participants representing all directed and a purposeful sample of self-directed learners.</p><p> <b>Findings.</b> Quantitative data showed that most participants could positively identify if they were ready for SDL, when looking at the readiness level for SDLRS. However, there was no significant relationship between their readiness for SDL and content growth of the training material. Content growth was measured using pretests/posttests. Qualitative data showed that those choosing SDL were motivated by convenience, desire for schedule autonomy, and confidence in ability to complete training independently.</p><p> <b>Conclusions.</b> The study data support the conclusion that adult learners are capable of identifying their readiness for SDL. SDL can be situational, and perceived barriers will motivate choosing DL versus SDL when given a choice. When barriers are mitigated, directed learners&rsquo; behavior may change and parallel self-directed learner behavior.</p><p> <b>Recommendations.</b> Further research is advised: (a) in applying quantitative survey to larger populations to determine more confidently the relationship between SDL and training growth; (b) in applying the research study to a more demographic diverse population that is better representative of the population; (c) applying the research study in various situations, as SDL is situational; (d) in seeking qualitative data from all participants including those not completing the study to discover the motivation and barriers to continue or withdraw from the learning experience.</p>