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This study evaluates the performance of the export marketing strategy for Malaysian palm oil over the period 1980-90, with emphasis on the promotion of this commodity in a large number of importing countries world-wide. The analysis of global data indicates that over this period the average per capita consumption level of oils and fats grew from 13.4 to 15.1 kg/hd, led by soybean oil and followed by palm, rape seed, and coconut oils, tallow and butter. However, the per capita consumption trend of soybean and coconut oils is declining, while there is a positive trend for rapeseed and palm oils, tallow and butter. Regression analysis using 1990 cross-sectional data based on 92 importing countries indicates that there is a significant positive and inelastic income response in per capita consumption of oils and fats, but that the income elasticity of consumption for animal fats is higher than that for vegetable oils. The relationship between per capita consumption of oils and fats types with price was found to be negative. The only significant relationship between per capita consumption of oil types and price is with palm oil. Between 1982 and 1990, vegetable oils accounted for 78 per cent of world trade in oils and fats, led by palm, soybean, rapeseed and sunflower oils. Malaysian palm oil accounted for 21 per cent of the total oils and fats trade in 1982-90. Based on market share analysis, the export gains for Malaysian palm oil came mainly from the general expansion of demand for oils and fats, particularly in developing countries, and to the lesser extent from the market reorientation and competitiveness effects. The contribution of promotional efforts was evaluated using import demand and promotion model for Malaysian palm oil. Promotional efforts were measured by estimated costs of overseas trips and familiarisation programmes, and a binary variable for ministerial visits.

This study examines the international political dimensions of Russian and Chinese oil and gas policies in Northeast Asia. It compares former Soviet and Chinese oil and gas policies, and examines the linkage between Russian and Chinese hydrocarbon industries' problems and their moves into frontier areas. The aim is to explore the two states' future policies for the area. The study analyses the consequences and implications of Russian and Chinese oil and gas policies in Northeast Asia. Looking at the directions of Russian and Chinese policies for Northeast Asia in the 1990s, hypotheses are drawn about: the future stance of Russia and China regarding their oil and gas policies; the international political consequences of these; the possibility of an Energy Regime integrating Russia, China, Japan, Taiwan, USA, and the two Koreas; the basis and time scale thereof; and the implications of different levels of Russian and Chinese hydrocarbon exports for their political relationships with the countries of Northeast Asia. As a conclusion, in the 1990s Russia and China seem to have no choice but to pursue very positive oil and gas policies due to the urgency of both countries' frontier oil and gas development, but an invisible competition between Russia and China to attract foreign investment looks highly likely. However, if new links established in Northeast Asia in the wake of the Cold War's demise can be developed into multilateral energy cooperation through an establishment of Northeast Asian Energy Regime, it will not only help both countries' frontier oil and gas and eventually economic development but also make a substantial contribution to the neighbouring countries' energy diversification and the region's balanced economic development.

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The main themes of this thesis focus on organisational change and learning in different geo-political contexts, bound together in a common moment of globalisation. These topics are explored through three case-studies from the manufacturing sector, one each from the United Kingdom, the Republic of South Africa and the Russian Federation. The project, on which this thesis is based. had a qualitative and interpretive design and took a comparative, narrative approach. It argues on the basis of this comparison, that organisational learning has to be related to the wider environment in which companies operate; individualistic models of learning are inadequate to explain the complex processes involved in learning in organisations. The thesis demonstrates that learning is most productively viewed as a form of sensemaking, which is particularly important in periods of change. This way of thinking about work-based learning subsumes all previous analytical descriptions of learning at work and all methods of promoting it, as sub-sets of a more generic process: making sense of experience. This approach of conceiving learning draws attention to the fact that learning involves the whole person, their sense of self, their understanding of the past and their grasp of the skills and relationships involved in their jobs. The concept of sense-making is explored at three levels - the macro-level with a focus on globalisation, the meso- or organisational level with an emphasis on strategic change and the micro- or personal level highlighting individual experiences of change and learning at the workplace. Narrative analysis is a powerful tool in organisational research to recover accounts of learning because it is through stories that people construct and make sense of the world. The comparative frame to this study highlights the cultural, historical and situated nature of narratives. This thesis shows that globalisation and strategic change are not impersonal phenomena, but become real and meaningful to everybody in an organisation through stories. Comparisons help to make otherwise tacit issues explicit.

L'économie algérienne est fortement dépendante, avec un commerce extérieur orienté principalement vers l'exportation des hydrocarbures. La perspective d'épuisement d'une telle ressource non renouvelable mène les économistes et les dirigeants à s'interroger sur l'avenir de cette économie et sur les voies et moyens de diversification. Les produits de terroir apparaissent comme une des solutions possibles du fait même de leur importance dans l'économie algérienne et de l'attachement spécifique des consommateurs de la diaspora à ces produits. La diaspora algérienne est en mesure d'impacter le processus de valorisation et de développement des exportations de ces produits de terroir vers les marchés internationaux. Ce croisement entre diaspora, commerce international et produits de terroir est l'apport principal de cette thèse sur le plan théorique. Cette mise en relation est également originale dans le contexte algérien et plus largement maghrébin, puisqu'il n' y a que peu d'études à ce sujet. Nous avons ainsi défendu la thèse que les produits de terroir pourraient constituer une voie de diversification du commerce extérieur algérien. Dans ce cadre, la diaspora est à même de jouer un rôle considérable à la fois dans la valorisation de ces produits et dans leur introduction sur les marchés internationaux. Nous avons appuyé notre démonstration par une démarche théorique et une méthodologie originale. Nos principaux résultats confortent cette thèse. Cependant, les contraintes institutionnelles et territoriales contrarient l'implication des réseaux diasporiques et freinent le processus de diversification et de valorisation des territoires. Il est à ce titre urgent de mettre en œuvre des dispositifs d'appui et d'accompagnement au profit des entrepreneurs, des territoires et de leurs produits de terroir. / The Algerian economy is highly dependent with a foreign trade oriented mainly to the export of hydrocarbons. The prospect of depletion of such a non-renewable resource lead economists and leaders to question the future of the economy, the ways and means of diversification. The local products appear as a possible solution because of their importance in the Algerian economy and the specific attachment of Diaspora consumers to these products. Algerian diaspora is able to impact the process of implementation and export development of these local products to international markets. This cross between diaspora, international trade and local products is the main contribution of this thesis in theoretical terms. This relation is also original in the Algerian and North African context, because there is little research about this. We have defended the thesis that the local products could be one way of diversification of the Algerian foreign trade. In this context, the diaspora is able to play a significant role both in the development of these products and their introduction in international markets. We supported our demonstration by an original theoretical and methodology approach. Our main results confirm this thesis. However, the institutional and territorial constraints, contradict the involvement of diaspora networks, slows the process of diversification and enhancement of territories. It this then urgent to implement support and guidance for the benefit of entrepreneurs, territories and local products.

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A maior integração entre os mercados traz novos desafios às empresas que se arriscam no comércio internacional. Para competir no mercado global, as firmas nacionais precisam atingir patamares de produtividade compatíveis com as suas concorrentes estrangeiras. Além disso, existem sunk-costs que precisam ser pagos pelas firmas estreantes no mercado externo. Assim, uma empresa que deseja exportar precisa (1) atingir níveis de produtividade competitivos e (2) ter fluxo de caixa ou condições de tomar crédito para pagar os sunk-costs. A pesquisa se propõe justamente a analisar os efeitos do acesso ao comércio internacional sobre as firmas industriais brasileiras. Observaremos quais os impactos da exportação sobre a produtividade e da restrição de crédito das empresas sobre a exportação. Três artigos serão elaborados. No primeiro, estudaremos o número de destinos atendidos pelas firmas brasileiras nas suas vendas ao exterior. Queremos analisar as diferenças entre as empresas que exportam para muitos países das empresas que exportam para poucos. Também, queremos saber quais mercados as firmas priorizam e se há uma ordem de entrada nos países. No segundo artigo, avaliaremos os ganhos de produtividade ex-ante e ex-post que são obtidos pelas empresas que exportam para quatro blocos econômicos: o Mercosul, o Nafta, a Comunidade Européia e o Leste Asiático. Procuraremos detectar qual bloco oferece maior efeito aprendizado (ex-post) e qual bloco favorece nossas empresas mais produtivas (ex-ante). A análise é relevante diante da atual discussão acerca de qual estratégia de integração é mais vantajosa para o Brasil. Por fim, no terceiro artigo, trataremos da relação entre restrição de crédito e a decisão de exportar. Procuraremos testar uma direção de causalidade entre os dois: se firmas com menor restrição financeira são mais propensas a exportar, ou se firmas exportadoras tem a sua restrição de crédito reduzida. O estudo objetiva colaborar com políticas de crédito a empresas exportadoras. Nos três ensaios, confrontaremos os resultados obtidos no Brasil com o que foi observado por trabalhos feitos em outros países, procuraremos justificativas para as diferenças e, se possível, proporemos temas para pesquisas futuras. / International trade brings new challenges to companies that start to export. To compete in global markets, national firms need to reach levels of productivity similar to those of foreign competitors. Moreover, there are sunk costs which have to be paid by entrant firms in foreign markets. Hence, a company that wants to export has to: (1) reach competitive levels of productivity, and (2) have internal funds or access to credit to pay the sunk costs. This research aims at analyzing the impact of international trade on Brazilian manufacturing companies. We observe the effects of export on productivity and the relation between exports and credit constraints. Three essays will be presented. In the first one, we study the number of destinations attended by Brazilian companies when they sell abroad. We want to analyze the differences between companies that export to many countries, and companies that attend a few ones. Also, we want to know which markets Brazilian firms prioritize and if there is an order of entry in international markets. In the second essay, we evaluate ex-ante and ex-post productivity gains which are obtained by companies that export to four economic blocs: the Mercosur, the Nafta, the European Community and the East Asia. We want to discover which bloc offers the higher learning-effect (ex-post) and which bloc favors the most productive firms (ex-ante). In the third essay, we treat the relation between credit constraints and the decision to export. We test a direction of causality between the two: if companies with less credit constraints have more chances to export or if exporting firms have less credit constraints than domestic firms and novice exporters.

Thesis advisor: James E. Anderson / The gravity model proved to to be one of the most successful framework for analyzing international trade flows, being referred to as the “workhorse” in the international trade literature (Head and Mayer (2014)). Microfoundations to this model has been provided in Anderson (1979) and it has often been employed to estimate the effects of a variety of trade policies (see Cipollina and Salvatici (2010) for a meta-analysis on reciprocal trade agreements, Rose (2000) for the effects of currency unions). The two chapters of this dissertation, which are independent empirical pieces, both make use of gravity equations for the estimation of trade flows, although with different purposes. The first chapter focuses on the specification of the gravity equation. In the second chapter, instead, gravity equations are employed for assessing the relationship between trade and growth: in fact, their estimation represents the first step for the creation of an instrumental variable for export flows. In the first chapter, a solo-authored work titled Scale Economies in European Trade, I show that European data support the existence of economies of scale in trade flows. The impact of trade costs on trade flows, in fact, is assumed to be constant by almost all empirical studies employing the gravity framework. Anderson et al. (2016) are the first to depart from this assumption, allowing trade costs to vary as a function of trade volumes. Their model nests the more traditional one and hence can be used to test for the existence of these scale economies, which are shown to be in place for trade between US and Canada. For my analysis I construct a comprehensive dataset for European trade in manufacturing over a long time span (from 1980 to 2013), on which I employ the same methodology. My results show that scale economies in trade costs are indeed a strong empirical fact outside of the American continent, and this holds for all the 26 manufacturing sectors considered, with an estimated average of 0.64% decrease in trade costs given by a 10% increase in trade volume. The focus on Europe allows me to test whether the EU expansion affected these economies of scale. While this is not true on average, it seems to be the case for some industries: trade with a EU partner entails scale elasticities 50% lower than trade with a non-EU member for 11 sectors out of the 26 considered. I also investigate whether scale elasticities can be rationalized by the existence of informational asymmetries. Using detailed product-level data, I do not find evidence that the degree of product homogeneity can account for the observed cross-sectoral variation. The scale coefficients are instead linked to country-specific institutional variables, such as the level of corruption: exporting to the country whose level of corruption is the lowest in the sample entails half the scale elasticity than exporting to the most corrupted one. In other words, corruption depresses trade to an higher extent on longer distances. In the second chapter, joint with Carlo Altomonte and Italo Colantone and titled Trade and Growth in the Age of Global Value Chains, we revisit the relationship between trade and income, taking into account the recent surge of global value chains (GVCs). First, we develop a new geography-based, time-varying instrument for export, exploiting the sharp increase (almost tripling) in the maximum size of container ships between 1995 and 2007. This global shock has an asymmetric impact on bilateral trade flows across countries, affecting disproportionately more countries endowed with a larger number of deep-water ports, which are needed to accommodate the new, much larger ships. We exploit this heterogeneity for identification, building up the instrument for export in a gravity framework. Our result show that export has a positive effect on GDP per capita, with a 0.6 elasticity. Evidence at the country-level shows that this effect works through capital accumulation. Exploiting the decomposition methodology by Wang et al. (2013), we show that differences in the value added composition of exports matter for trade-growth nexus. We find evidence in favor of an income premium for countries that upgrade their positioning in GVCs, whereas the degree of participation to GVCs does not seem to play a role. Consistent with this finding, we show that countries whose average level of upstreamness (a’ la Antras and Chor (2013)) increases the most over time exhibit a higher trade elasticity of income. Both papers indirectly deal with the effect of geographical distance on international trade flows. One of the strongest regularities in economics is certainly the negative role played on trade flows by the distance between origin and destination. Disdier and Head (2004), comparing 1,467 different studies, compute an average distance elasticity of trade of about -0.9. Hummels (2007) shows that the distance elasticity of trade does not seem to diminish over time, as it would do should distance be capturing only transportation costs, thanks to the technological developments witnessed in the transportation sector. Distance seems then to refer to trade costs in general, including institutional, policy and regulatory barriers that, also for historical reasons, often increase the further away countries are located. In the first paper, I show that the impact of distance on trade flows is not constant but varies with trade volumes. This corresponds with having a component of the composite friction described before, hidden in the distance term, being fixed and is consistent with micro-evidence on the export behavior obtained from firm-level data (Roberts and Tybout (1997)). It seems natural, then, to test whether some characteristics, either at the product-level or at the country-level, have a prominent role in explaining the non-linear effect that distance has on trade. My results find in level of corruption of the destination country an important determinant. In the second paper, we test whether the distance elasticity of trade varies as a function of the number of deep water ports on both the importer’s and the exporter’s shores, capturing the extent to which countries can trade via container vessels. The data support this claim for all the manufacturing sectors considered, showing that geographical distance, even though non-exclusively, captures the incidence of transportation costs on export flows. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics.