The leaf turn method and the black pan method, two sampling methods for estimating the abundance of Bemisia tabaci (Strain B) on cotton, were compared over a two year period in Maricopa and Phoenix, AZ Both methods were highly correlated with the density of immature stages prior to the use of insecticides, but more poorly correlated after insecticide use began. The two methods were highly correlated with one another, however, leaf turn counts were better predictors of immature infestation. The leaf turn method was also much less variable between individual samplers than the black pan method. Finally, in terms of cost-efficiency it takes, on average, 71% less time to estimate population density with an acceptable precision using the leaf turn method. Based on these criteria, the leaf turn method is a more reliable and efficient technique for estimating adult abundance.

Sampling and decision-making plans for managing sweetpotato whiteflies were implemented within 8,000 acres of cotton within the Laveen-Tolleson area of central Arizona. On the average, thresholds utilized for the first whitefly treatment were lower than those recommended, but subsequent treatments were made at about recommended thresholds.

In cotton plots heavily infested with silverleaf whitefly (SLW), Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring, amounts (mg /g of lint) of sugar (fructose, glucose and sucrose combination) on lint from tagged bolls, varied but showed a general trend to increasing amounts with increasing time of exposure (days) for 52 days. Minicard lint stickiness ratings responded in a similar manner and all values were above acceptable thresholds. Lint from harvested mature open bolls that were exposed on trays suspended in the interior of SLW infested cotton plots showed increasing amounts of sugar and higher minicard ratings after 6 days. Amounts of sugar and minicard ratings were drastically reduced following rains of 1.5 inches.

Silverleaf whitefly (SLW), Bemisia argentifolii, Bellows and Perring, preferred cantaloupe to cotton, broccoli and lettuce in field and greenhouse studies. In the absence of cantaloupe, SLW preferred cotton to broccoli and lettuce. In the field, more eggs and fewer nymphs were found on broccoli than on cotton. Differences in the relative abundance of vascular bundles per unit of leaf area between the four plant species may partly account for differences in oviposition site selection. Vascular bundle volume/unit of leaf tissue volume was 50% greater in cantaloupe than in cotton and broccoli, which in turn were significantly greater than in lettuce. Most SLW on cotton leaves are found on underside leaf surfaces. Distances from top and underside leaf surfaces to the nearest vascular bundles in cotton leaves were 131 and 60 tun, respectively, in the present studies.

Adult whiteflies were collected from six regions of Arizona and evaluated for susceptibility to fenpropathrin (Danitol®), acephate (Orthene®) and endosulfan (Thiodan®), and mixtures of fenpropathrin+acephate curl fenpropathrin+endosulfan. Strong indications of resistance to fenpropathrin, acephate and the fenpropathrin +acephate mixture were documented in some areas of the state. With all populations evaluated endosulfan was consistently the most toxic of the insecticides evaluated (singly) and was highly toxic in mixtures with fenpropathrin. Whitefly resistance to pyrethroid insecticides and especially mixtures of pyrethroid+organophosphate insecticides could have serious ramifications for the prevention of sticky cotton in Arizona. To combat further development of pyrethroid resistance cotton growers will need to reduce the number of pyrethroid treatments made per season.

Steinernema carpocapsae (Weiser) and S. riobravis Cabanillas, Poinar and Raulston applied in the field at the rate of 1 billion nematodes /acre equivalent persisted in the soil for 63 and 6 days, respectively. Persistence of S. riobravis in the field may offer the potential for introduction and permanent establishment of this nematode for pink bollworm (PBW), Pectinophora gossvpiella (Saunders), control in southwestern cotton growing areas.

Adult lygus bugs were collected from alfalfa fields in 6 different cotton producing areas of Arizona. The standardized, glass vial method was used to estimate susceptibility of the collected populations to the organophosphate insecticide, acephate (Orthene®), and the pyrethroid, bifenthrin (Capture®). Overall, lygus from throughout the state were very susceptible to bifenthrin. However, some populations were significantly less susceptible to bifenthrin than were others. Lygus populations with greater than 20% survivorship of 100 μg/ml vial bioassays with bifenthrin should be monitored to provide early warning of future problems with pyrethroid resistance. Resistance of lygus to acephate appeared to be widespread but not uniform in Arizona. While some populations had individuals surviving exposure to vial treatments of as high as 10,000 pg/ml acephate, other populations had no survivors of 1,000 pg/ml treatments. Lygus populations with survivors of 10,000 pg/ml vial bioassays should be considered highly resistant to acephate. Our findings illustrate that resistance levels are often unique from farm to farm, even within the same region. To preserve the long-term usefulness of acephate, where possible, cotton growers should consider using it no more than once or twice per season, on any given field.

A multi- agency team in Arizona in 1997 evaluated B.t. cotton deployment strategies in a large field trial; conducted statewide monitoring of pink bollworm (PBW) susceptibility to the Cry1Ac endotoxin, and established a Rapid Response Team that investigated claims of unacceptable performance of B.t. cotton. Though needing further evaluation, in-field refuges of one row of non-B.t. cotton for each five rows of B.t. cotton showed promise as an alternative to the current recommendation of external refuges for planting B.t. cotton. Preliminary results of statewide monitoring showed that four field populations were more susceptible to Cry1Ac than were two reference susceptible laboratory strains. A strain of PBW previously reported to be resistant to CrylAc was confirmed to be significantly less susceptible to this toxin than were the two susceptible laboratory strains or the four field populations tested. The Rapid Response Team, based at the Arizona Cotton Growers Association, investigated nine reports of unusual larval survivorship in B.t. cotton. Only one of these, which has been placed in culture, was confirmed to have resulted in substantial numbers of large larvae surviving in bolls of putatively B.t. cotton. Further investigations of this population and the plants from which it was derived are underway.

A whitefly resistance crisis in Arizona in 1995 prompted the development of a resistance management strategy in 1996 that recommended maximal once per season use of two insect growth regulators, pyriproxyfen (Knack®) and buprofezin (Applaud®), and limited and delayed use of synergized pyrethroid insecticides in cotton. Statewide monitoring of whitefly resistance has shown that implementation of this strategy has substantially reduced whitefly resistance to the synergized pyrethroids and has also resulted in increased susceptibility to key non pyrethroid insecticides. Having benefited from two years of success with this strategy, the Arizona cotton industry now faces the question of whether it can be sustained as pyriproxyfen and buprofezin gain additional registrations for use against whiteflies in vegetables, melons and glasshouse crops.

A resistance management program was initiated in Arizona in 1995, the initial goal of which was to sustain the efficacy of imidacloprid (Admire®) against Bemisia in vegetable crops. Due to the anticipated registration of additional chloronicotinyl (and related neonicotinyl) insecticides in Arizona, project objectives were subsequently broadened to address management of this entire class of insecticides in Arizona field crops. Results from three years of statewide monitoring of whiteflies from cotton indicated that whitefly populations in Arizona have become significantly less susceptible to imidacloprid in each of the past two years and significant geographical differences were described. However, no evidence was found of reduced field performance of imidacloprid in vegetables. Additionally, laboratory studies subjecting Arizona whiteflies to selection with imidacloprid did not increase levels of resistance beyond those occurring in the field. A study exploring the influence of cropping system differences on imidacloprid use (Admire® and Provado®) revealed no major differences in susceptibility to this insecticide between populations of whiteflies in central and southwestern Arizona. However, distinct seasonal shifts to lower susceptibility from 1996 to 1997 were observed in the Dome Valley of southwestern Arizona. Susceptibility of Arizona whitefly populations to imidacloprid was highly correlated with susceptibility to acetamiprid but was unrelated to susceptibility to CGA-293343. There is an urgent need to harmonize chemical use and resistance management efforts in Arizona cotton, vegetables and melons to avoid conflicts resulting from movement of pests between crops.