Physical activity and exercise have been shown to strongly contribute to an extended quality of life. Half of all physical declines in aging can be prevented by engaging in adequate levels of daily physical activity. Only one in four older adults over the age of 65 participates in regular physical activity. There are various factors that have been identified in this population that influence physical activity behaviors including gender, ethnicity, education, and socioeconomic status. Though important for providing baseline data on older adults, these descriptions do not fully explain why or why not this population engages in physical activity; or identifies the influences on physical activity adoption and/or maintenance. This study integrated two theoretical perspectives, self-determination theory and stages of change, to examine the motivations toward physical activity and the readiness for behavior change. Also, self-report physical activity scales (PASE) and objective fitness measures were compared. The major purpose of this study was to investigate physical activity behaviors in older adults, with specific focus on decision-making about exercise. Levels of self-regulation from self-determination theory predicted stages of change in older adults. Specifically, external regulation and identified regulation differentiated between inactive individuals, individuals who were initiating activity, and individuals who were maintaining activity. Subscales of the PASE were a better indicator of overall fitness levels. Finally, in order to capture the full experience and meaning of physical activity and exercise, a phenomenological approach across varying levels of activity and readiness was employed. Overall findings showed the importance of correctly measuring physical activity, guiding older adults through the varying levels of motivation by understanding their readiness for change, and ultimately being able to understanding the true meaning of physical activity and exercise as experienced by older adults. Suggestions for practitioners are also addressed.

The purpose of this dissertation was to use self-determination as a theoretical framework to investigate factors that influence college athletes adherence to injury rehabilitation programs. A two-part study, quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to gain insight into athletes motivation and decisions that they make regarding their engagement in injury rehabilitation. The focus of the quantitative study was to investigate the relationships between personal autonomy, levels of self-determination, perceived autonomy support, and perceived competence in injury rehabilitation. Participants (N=193 college athletes) completed surveys in a retrospective design. Autonomy orientations were positively related to higher levels of self-determination and the perception of an autonomy supportive environment. Findings suggested that a combination of autonomy and control orientations is associated with higher forms of motivation. In the qualitative study, 12 athletes, who had incurred a significant injury, and their athletic trainers, were interviewed about their perceptions of the injury rehabilitation program, health-care climate, and perceived competence. Three themes emerged that represent their views: (a) the powerful role that significant others play in the injury rehabilitation process; (b) the importance of maintaining an open dialogue; and (c) the utility of setting and achieving obtainable goals. Taken together, the results of these studies provide valuable information that can be used by researchers and practitioners to identify strategies that should enable athletic trainers to structure autonomy-supportive environments that will foster higher levels of self-regulation, motivation, and self-determination that ultimately will lead to improved adherence in treatment programs.

Previously, multicultural education literature has highlighted the increase of ethnically diverse students' growth in American public K-12 schools (Articles & McClafferty, 1998; Ladson-Billings, 1994). On the other hand, the literature reveals that many teachers are failing to appropriately exhibit culturally relevant pedagogical competence to accommodate the growth of students of color in American schools (NCDTF, 2004). Oftentimes, this contributes to the development of pre-service teachers that lack culturally relevant pedagogical preparation to teach students of color in American K-12 schools (Burden, Hodge, O'Bryant & Harrison, 2004; Ambrosio, Seguin, & Hogan, 2001). Thus, this study sought out to better understand how PETE teacher educators and pre-service students describe their methods of inclusion, teaching, and learning, as it relates to culturally relevant pedagogical preparedness. The study involved a phenomenological investigation of (8) teacher educators across (5) NCATE Accredited PETE programs about their pedagogical experiences with the phenomena of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) inclusion in curricula practices. In addition, (N=239) pre-service students across the (5) PETE Programs were assessed on their color-blind racial attitudes (racial awareness) and its relationship to their culturally relevant pedagogical skills and knowledge competence. Also, pre-service students' written descriptions were assessed via qualitative content analysis. Findings from this study revealed that PETE teacher educators experienced a) ethnocentric beliefs regarding students of color learning styles, behaviors, and preferences in K-12 physical education settings, b) that their White American pre-service students 'feared' teaching in schools with a high composition of ethnically/racially diverse students, c) that their programs lacked students and faculty of color, which the faculty indicated to add to the multicultural intelligence within the PETE program, and d) that more direct exposure in diverse settings would add to the multicultural teaching competence. Furthermore, findings indicate that pre-service students' awareness of racial and social inequalities is slightly associated with their reported levels of multicultural pedagogical skill competence. In addition, the pre-services students 'written descriptions' of their CRP preparedness indicated that their PETE methods courses and social interactions contributed the most to how they describe their learning of CRP practices and strategies.

Three experiments were designed to explore the measurement of muscle fatigue in people with cerebral palsy (CP). The four aims were to 1) develop a feasible and reliable isokinetic protocol to assess muscle fatigue of the knee flexors and extensors in this population, 2) determine if muscle fatigue of the knee flexors and extensors in people with CP differs from subjects without a motor disorder, 3) determine whether muscle fatigue is related to functional measures of activity and participation, and 4) investigate possible contributing factors of muscle fatigue. Results show that muscle fatigue can be reliably assessed through an isokinetic protocol consisting of 35 consecutive knee extension and flexion repetitions at 60 degrees/second by calculation of a fatigue index (FI) and the slope of the decline in peak torque. When compared to a control group of age-matched peers without motor disorder, the knee flexors and extensors in subjects with CP were observed to be less fatigable. Furthermore, muscle fatigue of the knee extensors and flexors in the group with CP was positively correlated with transfers and basic mobility. Muscle fatigue of the knee extensors was also positively correlated with overall global functioning, participation in sports and physical function, and fast walking velocity. Lower Gross Motor Function Classification System Levels (GMFCS) (i.e. less involved subjects) were also associated with higher levels of muscle fatigability. Strength was directly related to muscle fatigability, where weaker subjects had lower levels of fatigue, regardless of muscle. Cocontraction and quadriceps stiffness, on the other hand, were inversely related to muscle fatigability. The strongest predictors of hamstring fatigability were hamstrings strength and quadriceps stiffness, whereas the strongest predictor of quadriceps fatigability was hamstring cocontraction. The presence of spasticity, regardless of muscle group, was associated with lower fatigability compared to control subjects. In summary, the results indicate that the knee flexors and extensors of people with CP are less fatigable than age-matched peers without motor disability. In addition, lower levels of muscle fatigability are associated with lower levels of function and participation. Furthermore, weakness, spasticity, stiffness, and cocontraction are possible contributing factors to the observed fatigue resistance.

With the increasing rate of childhood obesity it is important to examine obesity prevention programs and strategies. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has been identified as a successful framework to examine and understand human behavior and obesity prevention research. However, there is limited support for the TPB regarding its use and efficacy for understanding parents influence on the health behavior of their children. The purpose of this study was to: (a) describe the most common behavioral, normative, and control beliefs of parents serving vegetables to their children; (b) examine the social cognitive correlates of parents intentions to serve vegetables to their children; and (c) to determine the social cognitive correlates of parents behavior. Children in grades three to five were assessed for height and weight to generate Body Mass Index (BMI) reports. The BMI report was issued to the parents of 72 children along with a questionnaire assessing demographic information, nutrition beliefs, and social cognitive correlates. The results revealed attitude (r = .56) had the strongest relationship with intention, followed by perceived behavioral control (PBC, r = .52) and subjective norm (r = .35). Additionally, intention (r = .57) had the strongest association with behavior, followed by PBC (r = .53). Nutrition beliefs emphasized parents knowledge regarding the health benefits of vegetables as well as the difficulty serving vegetables because of busy schedules, time constraints, and childrens reluctance to eat vegetables. The findings indicate that strategies to enhance parents intentions to serve vegetables to their children should include education about the benefits, identification of barriers, development of strategies to address barriers, and elicitation of social influence from important others. In addition, methods to encourage parents to serve vegetables should include ways to enhance motivation and strategies to overcome barriers. Overall, the findings of the study supported the use of the TPB for understanding parents decisions regarding the health behavior of their children.

The purpose of this study is to determine the validity of the Yale Physical Activity Survey (YPAS) in a population of oldest-old adults residing in Southeastern Louisiana. Methods: Participants were older adults (n=273) in two distinct age groups; 60-81 years of age (YOUNG-OLD) AND 29-103 years of age (OLDEST-OLD). YPAS estimates of physical activity will be compared to physical function as measured by the continuous scale physical function performance test. Results: The OLDEST-OLD demonstrated lower physical function scores and reported less physical activity (and more time sitting) in comparison to the YOUNG-OLD. The correlation between Total Time Summary Index and function in the oldest-old group was very strong (0.30643, p = 0.0003). Bootstrapping resampling showed with 95% certainty that the estimate in the difference in correlation coefficients ranged between 0.49 and 0.01. A significant association was observed between Activity Dimensions Index and function in both the Young-Old and Oldest-old groups at 0.41 and 0.38, respectively. Conclusion: For a given value of function, the expected value of energy expenditure is lower for the 90+ group than for the 80-61 group. In the model for TTSI, both gender and nonagenarian are significant. For a given value of function, females tend to have higher time summary index scores than do the men. Participants in the 60-81 age group tend to have higher TTSI than do the nonagenarian participants. Regarding the ADSI, gender is significant, but oldest-old group is not significant. The analysis of covariance between TEEI and function were found to have a linear relationship. The results of the analysis indicate a main effect of gender such that the female participants of both age groups spend more time in physical activity than do their male counterparts. Males, regardless of age group, participate in a greater amount of intense physical activity than to females across both age groups.

There is evidence that individuals attributional patterns are important determinants of behavior. Controllability had been identified as an influential dimension of causal attributions. When individuals believe their actions have an effect, or control, on the outcome of an event, they are more likely to engage in a behavior. Contingency of feedback can be used to manipulate perceptions of controllability. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of controllability on causal attributions, efficacy, and performance in an exercise setting, using a design that accounts for explanatory styles. It was hypothesized that non-contingent outcomes on an initial task would negatively affect causal attributions, thus decreasing efficacy and performance on subsequent tasks. Participants were 150 female undergraduate students at a small four-year institution. Explanatory style was assessed prior to engaging in the experimental tasks. Self-efficacy, causal attributions, and performance on a hand grip and a wall squat task were assessed during a testing session. Taken together, the results of this study provide insight into how perceptions of controllability can influence the cognition and motivation of college-aged women as they approach physical tasks. There was some evidence that non-contingent feedback can produce a maladaptive pattern of attributions, in that women in the non-contingent positive feedback condition had more external attributions for success than those who received contingent or negative feedback. Non-contingent negative feedback was associated with both decreased self-efficacy and less effort, as reflected by poorer performance, on a subsequent task. Although strength and level of self-efficacy on a subsequent task were positively affected by positive feedback, a decrement in performance, which on this task infers a lack of effort, was evident. This demonstrates the importance of providing feedback that is contingent on performance, rather than simply providing positive feedback. Although explanatory style was not directly related to self-efficacy, there was evidence that optimistic individuals were more efficacious than pessimistic individuals. Explanatory style did not interact with controllability conditions. One clear implication for practitioners that is supported by these findings is the importance of providing feedback that is contingent on performance.

It is well documented that the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), the most common muscle behavior, enhances muscle mechanical output. Stretch load and muscle preactivation level have been suggested as the two important factors regulating mechanical output. The purpose of this series studies is to systematically examine influences of the preactivation and the stretch load on muscle mechanical output during SSC. In the First study, a two dimensional lower extremity dynamic model was used to evaluate the influence of the approach on mechanical output. The peak summed power during the push-off phase demonstrated a quadratic trend across heights and appeared to be driven primarily by the ankle joint response. When an approach was used summed peak power was approximately 10% greater, regardless of the number of steps. In the Second study, we investigated muscle activity of seven major low extremity muscles during drop jumps. The surface EMG activities were full-wave rectified and averaged (aEMG) during the pre-activation (50ms before touchdown), downward and pushoff phases. The results showed that the aEMG of most tested muscles during the preactivation phase and the downward phase increased with more steps of the approach. This increase did not change the antagonist-agonist coactivation ratio, therefore would not attribute to knee joint injury. On the other hand, no aEMG changes were found with different drop heights. In the Third study, stretch load and preactivation were used as inputs for a muscle model to calculate muscle force, muscle velocity and muscle power. This model quantified how the different preactivation level and stretch load (velocity) affect the muscle mechanical output. Results showed that for low preactivation levels, increasing preactivation level could significantly increase gain in height for all stretch velocities we tested, but increasing stretch velocity may decrease the gain in height; for high preactivation levels, further increasing preactivation level may not increase gain in height. Over all, increasing preactivation enhances mechanical output due to increased active state level during SSCs; when preactivation is high, increasing stretch load enhances mechanical output due to increased positive work. Stretch load needs a high preactivation level to maximize the mechanical output.

Learning is commonly referred to as a two-way street between the learner and instructor. Until recently, learning has been studied using a one-way approach in which numerous studies have explored learning in situations where the experimenter or instructor shapes the practice environment. A number motor learning studies have shown the effectiveness of the learners abilities to control various aspects within their learning environment. Studies on augmented feedback (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002; Janelle, Kim, & Singer, 1995), observational learning (Wulf, Raupach, & Pfeiffer, 2005), and physical assistance devices (Wulf & Toole, 1999) have found that learning is enhanced when individuals are able to control the schedule of feedback and the schedule of model observations, and when to use physical assistance devices. Three experiments explored the generalizability of self-controlled learning on practice schedules when learning multiple tasks. Experiment 1 explored the learning differences between a group that was given the option to choose which task to practice within the practice session and a group that was given a predetermined schedule of practice. The results revealed no significant differences. Experiment 2 further explored the effect of self-control on practice schedules: the purpose was not only to investigate the learning benefits of self-control over a predetermined practice schedule, but also how participants choose within their learning environment. Results revealed that the self-control group outperformed a yoked group on a delayed transfer test. In addition, self-control participants chose to switch tasks after good trials and created schedules that gradually increased the amount of contextual interference as practice progressed. Finally, Experiment 3 sought to determine if the learning benefit of self-control was caused by self-regulatory processes or attributable to choice within the practice environment. This was done by comparing a group that chose their practice schedule before practice began to a self-control group that chose which task to practice during the practice session. The results revealed that the group that chose tasks during practice outperformed the group that chose their practice schedule before the practice began. Experiment 3 demonstrated that self-regulation was the underlying mechanism for the enhanced learning benefits seen in previous studies of self-control.

The purpose of this dissertation was to integrate the expectancy-value model of achievement choice and self-efficacy theory among middle school students, with the goal of better understanding students motivational beliefs and the factors that influence these beliefs. Three quantitative studies were conducted to address this purpose. In study 1, the expectancy-value model constructs (expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values) and self-efficacy theory constructs (self-efficacy and outcome expectancy) were measured in a sample of 225 students and were used to predict students in-class activity levels during a 2-week follow-up. Results of path analyses yielded that the hypothesized model fit the data well. Specially, self-efficacy had the greatest effect on activity levels followed by subjective task values. Expectancy-related beliefs and outcome expectancy indirectly predicted activity levels via self-efficacy. The overall variances in self-efficacy and in-class activity levels explained by the model were 54% and 23%, respectively. Study 2 investigated how students motivation toward physical education changed over the course of one school year among 206 students, and how grade and gender affected motivation. The results highlight that, self-efficacy and subjective task values were significant predictors of students intention for future participation in physical education across cohorts. This longitudinal study revealed a consistent decline in the mean levels of the study variables. However, there were no gender differences for any of the study variables. Study 3 examined the effects of two different learning contents (soccer and fitness) on students motivational beliefs (self-efficacy, subjective task values, and outcome expectancy) and their in-class activity levels. The results suggest that students reported higher scores in self-efficacy and outcome expectancy toward fitness than they did toward soccer. Nevertheless, students exhibited significantly higher in-class activity levels in the soccer class than they did in the fitness stations class. The results were interpreted from the perspectives of expectancy-value model and self-efficacy theory, and the educational implications were provided for physical education teachers and practitioners.