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AIM: The aim for this study was to identify the effects of physical activity (PA) on the psychosocial factors (PA self-efficacy, enjoyment of PA, perceived stress, and depression) amongst young adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) through the use of a 12-week remotely prescribed exercise program. METHODSs: This quasi-experimental study consisted of a 12-week remote-based exercise intervention (and a no-exercise control group) for young adults (18 – 35 years) with ASD. Participants were recruited through the Center for Autism and Related Disabilities (CARD), an organization that provides resources to individuals with ASD and their families. The exercise program occurred twice a week for 45 minutes each session. Both the intervention and control groups were asked to complete surveys on PA self-efficacy, PA enjoyment, perceived stress, and depression. RESULTS: A total of 16 young adults (intervention = 10; control = 6) with ASD were included in the final analysis. Findings revealed that there was a significant decrease in depression scores in the intervention group following the exercise intervention (p = 0.03). Additionally, the change in depression scores from baseline to post-exercise program was significantly greater than in the control condition (p=0.017). Findings were not significant for either exercise group and control group for scores in enjoyment, self-efficacy, and perceived stress. CONCLUSION: Preliminary evidence suggest that a remote-based exercise intervention may reduce symptoms of depression in young adults with ASD. Future studies that consider the type of exercise program prescribed and increasing the sample diversity and size are needed.

Minimal footwear sales have encountered rapid growth over the last several years. Minimal footwear are often constructed with thin basic uppers and thin, flexible midsoles. It is likely that running in minimal footwear will require adaptation and adjustments as the amount of cushioning and the geometry of the foot/ground interface will be substantially different than what many are accustomed to. This research investigated the effect footwear cushioning amount and the running surface had on running patterns. Study 1 utilized two different running footwear conditions and two different cushioned treadmill conditions, as well as a barefoot condition, to investigate the effect cushioning magnitude and mode had on running patterns. Subjects ran for six minutes at 3.0 m/s for each footwear/surface condition while kinematics and acceleration data were collected. Study 2 utilized three footwear conditions as well as a barefoot condition to investigate the effect of running in minimal footwear for the first time. Subjects ran for six minutes at 3.0 m/s while wearing each of the four conditions on an aluminum belt treadmill while kinematic and acceleration data were collected. The three footwear conditions were very similar except for the amount of underfoot material (foam) which varied from very little in the most minimal condition to a typical training footwear amount in the thickest condition. Study 3 utilized the same three footwear conditions worn in study 2. Subjects ran for 30 minutes at 3.0 m/s wearing each of the three footwear conditions while kinematic and acceleration data were collected in order to investigate the response to minimal footwear over the course of a sustained run. Results of Study 1 suggest that the amount of underfoot cushioning as well as how that cushioning was applied (footwear vs. surface) were both important and affected adjustments made during the run. The foot was more horizontal, the ankle joint complex more plantar flexed, and the knee more flexed in the sagittal plane at TD when running barefoot compared to all other conditions. Peak acceleration values were reduced for the most cushioned condition compared to all others. The thigh segment was more vertical at TD and peak tibial internal rotation at midstance was reduced when footwear were worn. This indicated cushioning provided through footwear altered running patterns compared to cushioning provided through the surface. More investigation is necessary to fully understand all the factors involved, but our research showed that cushioning magnitude is not the only factor affecting running patterns when footwear or running surface is altered. Some Study 2 dependent variables indicated running patterns to be significantly different for both barefoot and very minimal footwear conditions compared to footwear with thicknesses more similar to typical training footwear. Other dependent variables showed barefoot to separate from all footwear conditions implying that unique strategies were utilized for barefoot running even when compared to minimal footwear providing very little cushioning or protection. Peak accelerations implied that cushioning limited the shock transferred to the tibia and the head. Most coordination measures implied barefoot running to be significantly more variable than running in minimal running shoes. Adaptations due to running in footwear with unknown cushioning characteristics occurred quickly, in as few as six to eight steps. Kinematic adjustments were also occurring later in the six minute run. Study 3 kinematic and acceleration dependent variables indicated adjustments were made to running patterns as a result of changes in the amount of underfoot material. The foot segment was less horizontal and the AJC more dorsiflexed for the thick condition compared to both others. These changes did not completely compensate for changes in underfoot material however, as peak accelerations at the tibia and the head were increased as underfoot material was reduced. Runners were found to adjust running patterns as the thirty minute run progressed regardless of footwear condition. Several kinematic dependent variables were found to significantly increase or decrease as the 30 minute run progressed. In summary, the amount of cushioning and the mode of cushioning were found to effect running patterns. Given these findings, it is not surprising adaptations were found when comparing running in minimal footwear to running in footwear with more typical midsole thicknesses. Cushioning magnitude and the geometry of the foot/ground interface were substantially different between these footwear conditions. Although the thin condition provided almost no cushioning, differences were still shown between barefoot and this condition. Barefoot running may require a unique solution even compared to running in extremely minimal footwear. When runners wore minimal running shoes for the first time, some adaptations occurred quickly; however, adjustments were still occurring much later into the six and 30 minute runs. Runners who purchase minimal footwear can expect changes in running patterns.

Introduction: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive research technique used to study the nervous system. When conducting TMS research, the timing between pulses, or the interpulse interval, may influence corticospinal excitability. Previous studies conducted on hand muscles have shown that longer interpulse interval durations result in greater corticospinal excitability. Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of different interpulse intervals of single-pulse TMS on corticospinal excitability for the knee extensors. Based on previous studies, it was hypothesized that longer interpulse intervals would produce greater motor evoked potential amplitude and minimize pulse- to-pulse reliability. Methods: Seventeen healthy, college-aged males and females participated in a single laboratory visit, during which 25 single TMS pulses were delivered to the motor cortex with interpulse intervals of 5,10,15, and 20 seconds. Bipolar surface electromyographic signals were detected from the dominant vastus lateralis and rectus femoris. Friedman's test was used to examine mean differences across conditions. Within each condition, reliability across the 25 pulses was investigated. Results: For the vastus lateralis, a Friedman's test indicated significant differences among conditions (chi-squared [3] = 7.80, p = .050). However, there were no significant pairwise differences (p ≥ .094) and small effect sizes (d ≤ 0.269). For the rectus femoris, Friedman's test results showed no significant differences among conditions (chi-squared [3] = 2.44, p = .487). For both muscles and all four conditions, low intraclass correlation coefficients and high standard errors of measurement were suggestive of poor reliability. Conclusion: Unlike resting muscles of the hand, interpulse interval duration has little influence on corticospinal excitability for the knee extensors during active contractions.

There is limited knowledge of the dose-response relationship between physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior (SB) and health. Poor measures of free-living PA and SB exposure are major contributing factors to these knowledge gaps. The overall objective of this dissertation was to address these issues by refining, validating and applying a machine-learning methodology for measuring PA and SB for use in free-living people. By combining neural networks and decision tree analyses we developed a method better suited for use in free-living people. Our new method is called the sojourn method and it estimates PA and SB from a single hip mounted accelerometer. Study 1 validated two versions of this method: sojourn-1x (soj-1x) and sojourn-3x (soj-3x). Soj-1x uses data from a vertical accelerometer sensor, while soj-3x uses r data from the vertical, anterior-posterior and medial-lateral accelerometer sensors. Seven participants were directly observed in the free-living environment for ten consecutive hours on three separate occasions. PA and SB estimated from soj-1x, soj-3x and a neural network previously calibrated in the laboratory (lab-nnet) were compared to direct observation. Compared to the lab-nnet, soj-1x and soj-3x improved estimates of MET-hours (lab-nnet: bias (95% CI) = 5.4 (4.6-6.2), rMSE = 5.4 (4.6-6.2), soj-1x: bias = 0.3 (-0.2-0.9), rMSE = 1.0 (0.6-1.3), soj-3x: bias = 0.5 (-0.1-1.1), rMSE = 1.1 (0.7-1.5)) and minutes in different intensity categories (lab-nnet: rMSE range = 10.2 (vigorous) - 55.0 (light), soj-1x: rMSE range = 4.0 (MVPA) - 50.1 (sedentary), soj-3x: rMSE range = 7.8 (MVPA) - 27.8 (light)). Soj-1x and soj-3x also produced accurate estimates of qualifying minutes, qualifying bouts, breaks from sedentary time and break-rate. Study 2 evaluated the sensitivity of soj-1x and soj-3x to detect change in habitual activity. Thirteen participants completed three, seven day conditions: sedentary, moderately active and very active. Soj-1x and soj-3x were sensitive to change in MET-hours (mean (95% CI): soj-1x: sedentary = 19.8 (19.0-20.7), moderately active = 22.7 (22.0-23.4), very active = 27.0 (25.8-28.2), soj-3x: sedentary = 18.2 (17.7-18.8), moderately active = 22.3 (21.6-23.1), very active = 27.6 (26.4-28.7)) and time in different intensity categories. Study 3 applied soj-3x to a free-living intervention to elucidate the effects of increased sedentary behavior on markers of cardiometabolic health. Eleven participants completed seven days of an active condition followed by seven days of an inactive condition. Insulin action significantly decreased 17% (5.4-30.2), while total cholesterol, LDL and HDL did not change from the active to inactive condition. This dissertation used novel methods to improve PA and SB estimation in a free-living environment and to improve our understanding of the physiologic response to increased free-living SB. These methods ultimately have the potential to broaden our understanding of how PA and SB dose are linked to health.

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