The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an iconic Australian marsupial that is the sole extant representative of the Family Phascolarctidae and forms part of the mammalian fauna in four Australian States and one Territory. There has been a significant decline in the range and distribution of the koala since European settlement, with habitat loss and its associated threats, including vehicle strikes, dog attacks and disease, continuing to reduce population numbers. Koalas provide the tourism industry and the Australian economy with revenue up to $1 billion per annum with 80 zoos and wildlife parks around the country displaying koalas. Koalas were introduced to a number of islands in southern Australia the early 20th century, in an attempt to ‘save’ them from near extinction due to habitat loss, hunting and disease. While populations on Queensland islands remain stable and require no management intervention, introduced populations on southern Australian islands show extremely low levels of genetic diversity yet have grown substantially and require constant monitoring and management to overcome overabundance and starvation associated with defoliation of food trees. The only known extant, naturally occurring, island population of koalas is on North Stradbroke Island in Southeast Queensland’s Moreton Bay. Infection with bacteria of the Family Chlamydiacae is at high prevalence in most koala populations but the resulting diseases are generally of low prevalence in koalas in Southeast Queensland and New South Wales. The role of the koala retrovirus (KoRV) in relation to infectious diseases is not fully understood, but it has been identified from all northern koala populations and the majority of southern koala populations though, like chlamydial infection, it is not usually associated with high disease prevalence. The major histocompatability complex (MHC) is a gene family in mammals that is vital for its role in disease resistance and so may play a role in disease susceptibility in koalas. This study provided detailed information about the genetic diversity and population structuring of the mainland koala population in Southeast Queensland, which is amongst the most threatened of koala populations because of anthropogenic disturbance. Microsatellite genotyping of 512 samples and mitochondrial DNA sequencing of a subset of 77 samples collected from sick, injured and dead koalas showed that in Southeast Queensland koalas had high microsatellite diversity (12.8 alleles/locus, He = 0.81) and at least 16 mitochondrial haplotypes. Population genetic analysis revealed six genetically differentiated clusters consistent with the existence of biogeographic and anthropogenic barriers like rivers and highways. The Koala Coast, an area in Southeast Queensland that provides habitat for one of the most significant natural koala populations in Australia was found to be genetically distinct from adjacent areas; the rapid decline of this population means it meets the criteria for classification as “Endangered Wildlife” under Queensland’s Nature Conservation Act 1992. Climatic patterns of warming and cooling that produced the disappearance and reappearance of rainforests is likely to have affected long term koala distribution in coastal eastern Australia – expansion into drier forests when they were available and restriction to refugia during times of rainforest dominance. The koala population in Northeast New South Wales, which has conventionally been classified as a different subspecies to the koalas in Southeast Queensland, has colonised an extensive part of the area since the destruction of the “Big Scrub” rainforest. This forest occupied about 75,000 ha before European settlement and would almost certainly have represented a natural barrier to the movement of koalas as it was unsuitable habitat due to its lack of suitable food trees. Population structuring analysis identified two major genetic clusters in the region, the northernmost of which was less differentiated from koalas sampled on the Gold Coast in Southeast Queensland than the southernmost cluster. The southern cluster, largely found around the city of Lismore, had significantly lower diversity than the northern cluster, consistent with a southward radiating colonisation pathway. Ninety-six percent (96%) of koalas in Northeast New South Wales shared the same mitochondrial DNA haplotype, which was the most common haplotype in Southeast Queensland. There was, therefore, little evidence to support the subspecies delineation of coastal koalas in Southeast Queensland and Northeast New South Wales. From a comparison between wild, mainland populations and two captive koala colonies in Southeast Queensland, genetic diversity in 106 captive koalas was found to be similar to the local wild populations (Dreamworld 9.2 alleles/locus, He = 0.75, Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary 10.2 alleles/locus, He = 0.80). Microsatellite alleles in captive koalas were, in general, representative of the local wild populations and of similar frequencies, but the captive koalas possessed mitochondrial DNA haplotypes that were not found in the local wild koalas. Some of the original founders of the captive populations were not from Southeast Queensland so these different mitochondrial haplotypes are likely remnants of the koala genotypes at the original founders’ locations. The preservation of habitat and reduction of consequential threats to the koala’s long term survival in the wild are the most fundamental aspects of koala conservation in this region. However, the successful preservation of high genetic diversity at neutral loci in the captive colonies studied indicates that ex situ measures incorporating a captive breeding program could potentially be used as reservoirs for important genetic material should such an approach become necessary in the context of the drastic and accelerating decline towards local extinction of key Southeast Queensland koala populations. Urgent action would be essential to obtain a representative sample of current genetic diversity (both genomic and mitochondrial), given the drastic rate of decline. Island populations of organisms are expected to show reduced genetic diversity compared to their mainland counterparts because of factors such as founder effects and the increased susceptibility of small populations to the effects of genetic drift. A comparison of genetic diversity was made between the naturally occurring North Stradbroke Island koala population in Southeast Queensland and the introduced populations on St Bees, Brampton, Newry and Rabbit Islands in central Queensland with the mainland populations. As expected, the island populations had lower genetic diversity than mainland populations, however, the introduced St Bees Island population had higher mean number of alleles and expected heterozygosity (5.7 alleles/locus, He = 0.67) than the naturally occurring population on North Stradbroke Island (3.7 alleles/locus, He = 0.55). Anecdotal evidence suggests that the koala populations on Brampton, Newry and Rabbit Islands off the central Queensland coast were established by the unauthorised transfer of koalas from St Bees Island. Mitochondrial DNA haplotype analysis supports this claim however, the most likely explanations for the presence of at least four microsatellite alleles in the Brampton, Newry and Rabbit Island populations that were not found in St Bees Island koalas are that either there were additional introductions from elsewhere or that koalas were already present on these islands prior to the transfers from St Bees Island. A study on the prevalence of chlamydial and retroviral infection in captive and wild koalas showed that 100% of koalas in this study had retroviral and chlamydial infection in at least one tested swab site. None of the captive animals showed clinical signs of disease despite the high prevalence of infection. Signs of disease were evident in some wild koalas, which, in some cases, was the reason for their admission to Moggill Koala Hospital for treatment. In an attempt to understand the immunological mechanisms underlying the apparent disease resistance of koalas which usually limits latent infection progressing to clinical disease states, the MHC genes of koalas were investigated. Low variation at MHC loci is thought to increase susceptibility to infectious diseases because fewer foreign antigens are recognised. The first class II sequences identified from koalas are presented here and showed variation. Variation was also detected at exon 3 of class I, with evidence for at least three class I loci. The koala is a unique Australian marsupial that makes a nationally significant contribution to the Australian economy annually. The results of this study have important conservation and management implications for koala populations in Southeast Queensland and Northeast New South Wales - particularly declining populations in Southeast Queensland - as well as being informative on other aspects of the species’ biology and for mammalian conservation genetics, generally.

Thesis (M. Sc.) -- University of Western Sydney, 2003. / "A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the degree of Master of Science (Honours)" Bibliography : leaves 89 - 97.

Prenant l’affaire Probo Koala en Côte d’Ivoire comme l’élément déclencheur d’une observation, ce mémoire étudie les fondements des mouvements transfrontières illégaux des déchets dangereux des pays développés vers les pays en développement. En effet, nonobstant la pluralité des dispositions juridiques internationales, le transfert des déchets illicites demeure une actualité dans les pays du tiers monde dont particulièrement ceux de l’Afrique noire et à la fois un tabou dans ceux du Nord et du Sud. Les deux domaines proposés, droit international et national, montrent comment les faiblesses et la non-application des dispositions juridiques conduisent à des actes socialement irresponsables. De ce fait, des réformes tant au niveau juridique que judiciaire ainsi que l’implication des parties prenantes sont suggérées comme solutions pour combattre ce fléau. / Taking Probo Koala case in Côte d’Ivoire as element shutter release of an observation, this memo studies the foundations of the illegal cross-border movements of the hazardous waste of countries developed towards developing countries. Indeed, nonwithstanding the multiplicity of the international legal dispositions, the transfer of the illicit waste remains an actuality in the countries of Third World among which particularly those of the Black Africa and at the same time a taboo in those of the North and of the South. Both offered domains, international and national law, show how weaknesses and non-application of the legal dispositions drive to socially irresponsible acts. So, of re-form both at legal level and judicial as well as involvement of stakeholders are suggested as solutions to fight this blight.

Habitat destruction and degradation are the most important threatening processes for the majority of species of conservation concern. As landscapes become more fragmented their spatial structure becomes increasingly important for the viability of wildlife populations. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of how populations interact with landscape structure is crucial for developing effective wildlife management and monitoring strategies. To achieve robust management, such an understanding should be incorporated into decision theory approaches for the design of management and monitoring strategies. Monitoring is a crucial component for assessing the outcome of management, because this can then be used to inform future management actions in an adaptive management framework. However, for many species, their spatial population dynamics are not well understood and objective management frameworks not well developed. In this thesis I use modelling approaches to develop the components of an adaptive management framework for species of conservation concern that occur in fragmented landscapes. I use the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) as a study organism and specifically address three key components that are important for adaptive management. These components are: (1) the development of novel approaches for modelling and understanding spatial population processes, (2) the application of modelling approaches to develop general principles and methods for managing wildlife populations in fragmented landscapes and (3) the application of modelling approaches to identify the best spatio-temporal sampling strategies for monitoring population trends in fragmented landscapes. This research advances our understanding of the dynamics of wildlife populations in fragmented landscapes, but importantly also develops tools and general principles for the adaptive management of these populations. To improve our understanding of the dynamics of populations in fragmented landscapes I develop several novel modelling approaches. Firstly, I develop an approach for disassociating the effect of natural habitat and anthropogenic influences on population distributions using static occupancy models. This approach allows inferences to be made about how important the distribution of habitat is compared to other human-related factors. Secondly, I develop modelling approaches for understanding habitat selection and dispersal processes. In particular, I address common problems for modelling complex habitat selection processes and parameterising dispersal simulation models. The habitat selection models are novel because they account for habitat preferences that depend upon the spatial location of habitat. The novel emphasis for the dispersal models, is showing that pattern-oriented approaches are useful for parameterising dispersal simulation models, even when we have little data. These models make an important contribution to our understanding of and methods for understanding spatial population processes. These and other modelling approaches are then applied to some key management questions, in order to develop general principles and methods for wildlife management decision-making. These studies relate to identifying the best spatial allocation of different management strategies, the planning of road networks to minimise impacts on wildlife and the impact of different mortality rates on the ranking of habitat protection strategies. First, I show that the relative spatial distribution of habitat and anthropogenic influences has important implications for the spatial allocation of management strategies. Second, I show that increasing traffic volume on existing roads is generally preferential to building new roads in terms of minimising the impact on wildlife mortality. Third, I use a multi-criteria decision analysis to show that the spatial arrangement of protected habitat is much less important for populations subject to high mortality rates than those subject to low mortality rates. Finally, spatially-explicit modelling approaches are applied to questions related to how sampling effort should best be allocated spatially and spatio-temporally to monitor population trends. These studies reveal that the best sampling strategy depends predictably upon the monitoring objectives and the dynamics of the species. Using the principles developed, improved monitoring strategies and ultimately improved management strategies will be possible. This thesis makes an important contribution to the development of adaptive management strategies for wildlife populations in fragmented landscapes. To implement an adaptive management approach, the modelling, management and monitoring components must be explicitly linked. By developing each of these components, this thesis provides a strong basis from which an adaptive management framework can be constructed. How this may be achieved and key areas for future research are discussed.

This thesis project has focused on the development of high-pressure single-crystal diffraction experiments on the neutron Laue diffractometer KOALA at the OPAL reactor at ANSTO, Australia. Over the course of this project several candidate systems have been studied under conditions of high-pressure using X-ray diffraction with a view to their use in developmental experiments on KOALA. The results of two high-pressure KOALA experiments are presented as well as the notable results from X-ray diffraction on the candidate systems. The first experiment on hexamethylenetetramine provided valuable insights into how reduced crystallite size and reciprocal-space access affects data collected on KOALA. In addition, data treatment techniques were developed to deal with the unique and challenging high-pressure Laue data, including corrections for attenuation due to the cell body. The ability to collect data through the body of cell prompted a further experiment on the complex, low-symmetry structure of the amino acid l-arginine dihydrate. Despite the smaller crystal size and dominant parasitic scattering from the diamond-anvil cell, the data collected allow a full anisotropic refinement of hexamethylenetetramine with bond lengths and angles that agree with literature data within experimental error. This technique is highly suited to low-symmetry crystals, as shown by the successful refinement of data from a l-arginine dihydrate crystal. In such cases the transmission of diffracted beams results in higher completeness values than are possible with X-rays. The hydrogen-bonded ferroelectric rubidium hydrogensulfate was the subject of ambient-pressure experiments on KOALA investigating the nature of the ferroelectric transition. Further high-pressure X-ray diffraction studies were carried out to resolve the structures of phases at high-pressure and to investigate the ferroelectric transition under pressure. The potassium cobalt citrate metal-organic framework UTSA-16 has shown a wide variety of pressure-mediated framework-solvent interactions including negative linear compressibility, the ordering of potassium ions, and coordination changes which were investigated by high-pressure single-crystal and powder X-ray diffraction. These behaviors are rationalised by examination of the structural changes occurring in the framework under pressure. Two members of the widely studied alkylammonium tetrachlorometallate family, tetramethylammonium tetrachloroferrate(III) and tetramethylammonium tetrachlorogallate(III), display numerous phase transitions with temperature. The structures of these phases have been determined for the first time, and the contrast between the two materials explored with first-principles calculations.