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Cyclopean masonry, used to construct the LH III fortifications on mainland Greece, has been broadly defined as being of large irregular-shaped blocks, commonly of local limestone, unworked or roughly dressed and assembled without mortar, but with small stones set in interstices. Unfortunately, this is the extent to which this masonry has been defined, leaving unanswered questions concerning building style, engineering techniques, and the amount of labour invested in the projects. The heavily fortified palatial/residential complexes of Mycenaean Greece have often been considered the result of an unsettled and aggressive society; however, an investigation into the types and location of the various structures suggest that the walls were designed to conspicuously display wealth. Cyclopean stonework is not confined to the citadels, but includes the elaborate drainage project of the Copais and a system of road networks, both which would suggest a high level of cooperation between communities. Indeed, calculations made in considering resource availability demonstrate that fortifications exceeded all defensive requirements and were probably constructed in then- initial form as part of a programme promoting and strengthening the status of the state through a display of its wealth in large scale building programmes. These monumental fortifications are often believed to have then- origins elsewhere in the Aegean, Cyprus, or the Near East; however, the evidence points to an independent development on mainland Greece. Features of the fortifications are analysed and compared to earlier and contemporary forms of Aegean, Cypriote, and Near Eastern structures in order to understand similarities and/or differences in construction, with a particular emphasis on those structures outside the Greek mainland that have been labelled as "Cyclopean". The conclusion reached is that in each geographical region the fortifications form a distinct group. In order to determine the origins of Cyclopean masonry on the Greek mainland, Cyclopean structures other than fortifications are studied and the masonry style is classified into a typology for an understanding of differences in regional work or date. This information is then used to understand Mycenaean social complexity, defined as the resultant behaviours of individuals or groups functioning within a larger collective assembly whose attitudes and actions, either directly or indirectly, affect the larger community, and to show how previous notions of an aggressive and warring society maybe inaccurate. Although the Mycenaean culture may have been competitive, its means for competition and displays of wealth could only have been achieved through cooperative measures.

The origins of Early Iron Age polity in south-east Cyprus have traditionally been attributed to the formal imposition of Phoenician dominion over Kition in 707 BC. It is proposed that this paradigm fails adequately to acknowledge local agency in the preceding development of relations with Canaan and the Nile Delta from c.1650 BC onwards. Longue durée trends in settlement and societal development suggest that Late Bronze Age communities became pre-adapted to incorporation into wider Levantine spheres of interaction through participation in 'orientalizing' exchange. An emphasis is placed upon the significance of bulk commodity industry as a catalyst for social innovation, including the adoption of urbanism, concurrent with secondary state formation. Three case studies examine the development of regional settlement landscapes within the environs of Ayios Sozomenos, Pyla, and Hala Sultan Tekke. Discussion chiefly incorporates the results of new fieldwork conducted by the author [2007-2009] at the site of Pyla-Kokkinokremos. This involved pedestrian, geophysical and remote sensing survey combined with trial excavation. Several previously unknown archaeological features were identified, providing significant new information concerning the character and intramural composition of this important maritime centre. These findings complement those of previous missions, and reflect an established community rooted in its surroundings. A dominant trend of continuity in settlement and societal development, most clearly apparent through successive episodes of synoecism, is proposed for south-east Cyprus as a whole across the Bronze-to-Iron Age transition. Changes in occupation throughout the eastern Mediterranean at this time have conventionally been attributed to successive waves of migration and colonisation. This thesis constitutes an attempt at a pre-colonial narrative for Phoenician Cyprus, and by extension a conceptual framework to structure investigation of Levantine diaspora communities elsewhere in the Mediterranean.

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A large quanti ty of gold'vork was produced in Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age. This thesis is the result of a detailed investiGation of this material. The thesis consists of two parts. Part One comprises general backeround information essential to the study. This begins with a brief summary of the nineteenth century excavations in Cyprus which brought to light so much of the finest &old'fork. This is followed by an outline of the limited contextual evidence from tombs, settlements, sanctuaries and hoards. The rest of Part One considers the possible sources of the gold itself and the techniques which \ .... ere used by the Late Bronze Ace t,'oldsmiths. Part Two comprises a detailed analysis of the eold"ork. This is based for the most part on objects which were physically exal:dned, '\{ith the aid of a microscope. These represent a large proportion of the available material, but the analysis also takes account of as many as possible of the other known and published items. Each class of object is subdivided for convenience according to type or decoration, and relevant technical points are discussed. ".ihere possible, comparisons are made with material :from other areas such as the Aege~ or the Kear Last. The chronology is indicated where it is known. The final conclusions offer a summary of the relationship between Cyprus and other areas with reference to the goldwork. The extent of the ~1ycenaean contribution is discussed, and the material is placed "Ii thin its historical framework. Volume Two comprises the descriptive catalogue of the objects which were examined.It also contains the Plates and Figures.

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This thesis investigates similarities and differences in the chemistry of the Linear B clay tablets and sealings found at the Palace of Nestor in Pylos, located in the western Peloponnese, Greece. Their chemistry provides clues regarding the flow of material goods in and out of the palace and therefore to the degree of centralization of the political-economy. Over a thousand 3,000 year-old clay tablets and sealings currently housed at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens were analyzed using a pXRF over the course of the summers of 2015 and 2016. The chemical compositions were analyzed statistically. Results of the study and the conclusions are presented here.

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The present thesis provides a methodological examination of Pyla-Kokkinokremos and Maa-Palaeokastro, two settlement-sites that were established in Cyprus during the transition from the Late Cypriot IIC (roughly the thirteenth century BC) to the Late Cypriot IIIA (roughly the twelfth century BC). These two settlements were extremely short-lived and persisted for merely a couple of generations before their eventual abandonment. The period under consideration is often referred to as the “Crisis Years”, and marks a time when the politically and economically powerful land-based polities of the eastern Mediterranean were brought to an end. The foundation of Pyla-Kokkinokremos and Maa-Palaeokastro coincides with these critical years for the eastern Mediterranean and the upheaval of the settlement pattern of Cyprus. Since their excavation, the two sites have been considered as two very controversial and intriguing phenomena. Their selected position on top of naturally fortified locations and the marked absence of perennial water sources in their vicinity suggested that they were established in order to fulfil a special purpose. The original suggestion put forward by the excavator that Pyla-Kokkinokremos and Maa-Palaeokastro represent the earliest establishments of refugees fleeing from the Aegean following the palatial collapse has been questioned by a number of scholars, who insist on the Cypriot character of the two sites, and therefore consider them as outposts established by local populations. This dissertation provides a re-examination of the topographical setting of the two settlements, their architectural characteristics and their material culture, mostly pottery, aiming to determine the series of events that led to their establishment, as well as the roles and functions fulfilled by the two sites. The objective of this study is not exclusively concerned with the detailed presentation of excavated architectural and artefactual remains from Pyla-Kokkinokremos and Maa-Palaeokastro. In extent, the aims of this thesis are to define the character of Cyprus during the years marking the transition from the thirteenth to the twelfth century BC, and examine transformations in the settlement pattern of the island, its socio-political landscape and provide a holistic approach of its material culture.