A six-group randomized experimental study was used to investigate the factors that are associated with a marriage and family therapist's decision to work with clients individually or as a couple when they present with intimate partner violence (IPV). Investigated factors included the type of IPV experienced by the clients, the therapist's accuracy in identifying the type of violence experienced by clients, and the therapist's experience with IPV in their own romantic relationships, as moderated by levels of differentiation. Participants included 275 members of the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. A chi square test revealed that participants who received vignettes portraying situational couple violence were more likely to endorse couples treatment as the preferred treatment modality than participants who received vignettes portraying intimate terrorism. Additional chi square tests revealed that among participants who received vignettes portraying situational couple violence, those who were accurately able to identify the type of violence portrayed in the vignette were more likely to endorse couples treatment as the preferred treatment modality than those who did not accurately identify the type of violence. Additional analyses, however, suggest that accurate identification and appropriate treatment choice may be more difficult in situations in which intimate terrorism is taking place, especially when women are the perpetrators of this abuse. Logistic regression indicated that there was not a significant relationship between therapists' personal experience with IPV and endorsement of treatment type. In addition, differentiation did not moderate the relationship between IPV experienced in participants' own romantic relationships and their endorsement of couples treatment. The current study indicates that marriage and family therapists are likely to make IPV treatment choices primarily based on the type of violence experienced by the couple. It appears that IPV treatment choice is not influenced by personal experience with IPV, but rather by the therapist's accurate identification of IPV type and the gender of the perpetrator of abuse. These findings ultimately highlight the need continued education on IPV, IPV types, gender biases with regards to IPV, and the importance of taking safety into consideration when making treatment decisions. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / July 7, 2014. / Counseling, Differentiation, Domestic Violence, Family Violence, Intimate Partner Violence, Marriage and Family Therapy / Includes bibliographical references. / Frank Fincham, Professor Directing Dissertation; Dina Wilke, University Representative; Wayne Denton, Committee Member; Lenore McWey, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to explore multiple research questions related to foster caregiver protective factors, satisfaction with fostering, and intent to continue fostering. First, the researcher identified what protective factors (i.e., parental resilience, social connections, concrete supports, and nurturing and attachment) foster caregivers report and to what degree. Second, the researcher determined whether there was a significant relationship between the independent variables (protective factors) and the dependent variables (satisfaction with fostering and intent to continue fostering). Next, the researcher examined whether child disruptive behaviors moderated or influenced the nature or strength of the relationship between protective factors and satisfaction as a caregiver. Third, the researcher examined a second model of whether child behaviors moderated or influenced the nature or strength of the relationship between protective factors and intent to continue fostering. The sample consisted of 155 licensed foster caregivers from across the United States. Descriptive statistics (i.e., means, standard deviations, range, internal consistency, skewness, kurtosis, and bivariate correlations), multiple regression, and interaction effects in multiple regression were used to test the various relationships proposed in this model. First, it was found that foster caregivers generally report a high degree of each protective factor. Second, there was a significant relationship between protective factors and two domains of satisfaction (challenging aspects of fostering and confidence and satisfaction). Third, child behaviors served as a significant moderator between some of the protective factors and two domains of satisfaction (challenging aspects of fostering and confidence and satisfaction). Implications for future research, practice, and policy were discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / May 13, 2014. / Foster Care, Foster Children, Foster Parents, Protective Factors, Satisfaction / Includes bibliographical references. / Ann K. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Karen Randolph, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Ming Cui, Committee Member.

The factors that currently impact professional practice in the field of human sexuality are invisible in the available literature. The current study addresses this gap, and also identifies similarities and differences between professions, as well as the role of an ecological systems framework in explaining professionals' experiences. The present study drew on past literature that outlines the historical nature of sexuality education, therapy, and research. The sample was drawn from a previous data set where the author interviewed experts in the field(s) of sexuality education, therapy, and research. Twenty-seven sexuality educators, therapists, and researcher were interviewed using purposive and snowball sampling. Beginning with contacting the membership directors of the American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors, and Therapists (AASECT; the predominant professional body for sexuality educators and therapists in North America), and the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS; the predominant professional body for sexuality researchers in North America), to gain the initial potential participants, a snowball sampling technique was subsequently used to garner the remainder of the respondents. To conduct these interviews, the author contacted each potential participant personally through email. Participants were interviewed through Skype or a telephone conversation typically lasting between 35 to 90 minutes. They were then asked to provide their experiences regarding their joys, challenges, what they would have done differently; areas where the field needs growth; factors to be studied; and suggestions for the future of sexuality education, therapy, and research. The interviews were analyzed using a grounded theoretical (GT) strategy, resulting in the production of themes. Two main themes, as well as many sub-themes, were identified that explain the factors impacting professional practice in human sexuality. Meaningful work and the personal characteristic of diehard determination, both encompassed what a professional must attain and overcome to remain in a sexuality-based career. Meaningful work for sexuality educators was comprised of student epiphanies and the public's desire for accurate information. For therapists, this included the overwhelming trust of clients and the variety of clinical treatments and problems. For researchers, this was represented through the variance of the phenomena studied, and a senses of pioneering. Diehard determination in sexuality educators was seen through confrontation and conflict and maintaining sensitivity. For Therapists, this was represented by insufficient training and clients' beliefs about normality. Sexuality researchers remained determined despite funding being an ever-present challenge, institutional review boards not understanding sexuality research, and work being undervalued. Many unique similarities and differences were observed among professions. Similarities were seen through participants' recommendations for future professionals wishing to enter the field. Themes included: holistic views and a change in sociopolitical ideology. Many differences among the experiences of each profession were observed through professional's perspectives on future directions for sexuality education (such as the need for external collaboration), therapy (e.g., the usefulness of a standardization of certification), and research (e.g., the desire for internal unification among professions). Additionally, an ecological systems framework was helpful in explaining the factors that impact professional practice in human sexuality. This framework was useful in describing the experiences of respondents in the context of natural impacts (such as time), human-behavioral impacts (such as the personal interactions and difficulties in collaboration between sexuality professionals and those in other fields of human science), and human-constructed impacts including regulatory systems (e.g., restrictive funding priorities). Many implications for theory, research, and professional practice were identified. The results of this study noted the extent to which novel methodological, measurement, and theoretical approaches are needed in the field of sexuality. It is particularly important for training and regulatory bodies to work together to create internal consistency among the various professional practices within the field of human sexuality. Professionally, regulation through credentialing standardization could further be researched, with the possibility of increased credibility among professional practices. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / April 15, 2014. / Impacting Factors, Professional Implications, Sexuality, Sexuality Education, Sexuality Research, Sexuality Therapy / Includes bibliographical references. / Carol A. Darling, Professor Directing Dissertation; Anne Barrett, University Representative; Marsha Rehm, Committee Member; Wayne Denton, Committee Member.

Empirical knowledge about sibling relationships of youth in foster care is scant. The purpose of this study was to explore sibling relationships of youth in foster care and begin to build a stronger understanding of the potential protective role these relationships can have for youth in an uncertain circumstance. Symbolic interaction was used as the theoretical lens for this mixed methods study. The sample consisted of children who are currently living in foster care and attended a five-day sibling enhancement camp, called Camp To Belong. The results indicated that sibling relationships could be a protective factor for youth in foster care. In a qualitative exploration of the meaning of sibling relationships of youth in foster care, youth reported that their sibling has a positive and protective role. Furthermore, youth reports of greater sibling warmth significantly predicted higher scores of individual resilience, a trait that is associated with overcoming adversity. Another aim of this study was to explore developmental differences of sibling relationships for those in foster care. The results of this study indicated that there were no significant differences between youth in middle childhood and adolescents in how they perceived their sibling relationship quality in terms of sibling warmth and sibling conflict. Lastly, youth in middle childhood and adolescence had a significant decrease in sibling conflict as a result of their participation in Camp To Belong. The results of this study have implications for research, clinical practice, and policy that are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / April 2, 2014. / Development, Resilience, Siblings / Includes bibliographical references. / Lenore M. McWey, Professor Directing Dissertation; Kathryn H. Tillman, University Representative; Wayne Denton, Committee Member; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member.

This study explored the relationship between adolescent mental health, parental depression, and family environment for children and adolescents accessing intensive mental health treatment. The study had two aims. Aim one was to identify the severity of externalizing behaviors versus internalizing behaviors in children and adolescents accessing intensive mental health treatment and to determine the nature of gender differences in such behaviors. Aim two was to explore the relationship between adolescent mental health, parental depression, and family environment. Results indicated that children and adolescents accessing intensive mental health treatment were more likely to exhibit externalizing behaviors than internalizing behaviors, and female adolescents were more likely to exhibit externalizing behaviors than were male adolescents. In relation to the second aim, there was a significant relationship between parental depression and internalizing behaviors in children and adolescents, such that parents who reported more symptoms of depression were more likely to report that their children and adolescents exhibited internalizing behaviors. Family environment and gender had the greatest influence on externalizing behaviors such that families with female adolescents and who reported lower levels of connection within the family were also more likely to report that their children and adolescents exhibited externalizing behaviors. Lastly, parents who perceived that their children and adolescents were exhibiting externalizing behaviors were more likely to report less access to relationships both internally (i.e. their spouse) and externally (i.e. childcare, friends). Conversely, only one of the internalizing behaviors, depression, was related to access to internal and external family relationships. Parents who perceived that their children and adolescents were displaying more depressive symptoms were also more likely to report less access to relationships. Findings from the current study highlight the need to understand the families of children and adolescents who access intensive mental health treatment to better tailor prevention and intervention efforts. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / March 25, 2014. / Adolescent, Intensive Mental Health Treatment, Parental Depresion / Includes bibliographical references. / Wayne Denton, Professor Directing Dissertation; Michèle Preyde, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joyce L. Carbonell, University Representative; B. Kay Pasley, Committee Member; Ming Cui, Committee Member.

The impact of family differentiation (cohesion and enmeshment), as measured by the Colorado Self-Report of Family Functioning Inventory, on ego identity development (exploration and commitment), as measured by the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire, was examined. This study also examined the impact of family differentiation on psychological well-being, both directly and as mediated by ego identity development. The psychological well-being variables were life satisfaction, measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale; depression, measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D); and state anxiety, measured by a short form of the state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI-6). The research questions were: 1) Do cohesion and enmeshment influence commitment and exploration? 2) Do cohesion and enmeshment influence psychological well-being (anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction)? 3) Do these findings differ between non-Hispanic white participants and Hispanic participants of any race? Participants were undergraduate college students at two public universities in the southeastern United States. The total sample size was n = 563. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the hypothesized relationships. This study also examined the mediating role of identity formation variables drawn from the ego identity development paradigm in cross-cultural context. Results show that, consistent with the study predictions, cohesion had significant positive effects on commitment and life satisfaction, and significant negative effects on depression and anxiety (both directly and as mediated by commitment). Also as predicted, commitment had a significant positive direct effect on life satisfaction, and significant negative direct effects on depression and anxiety. However, no effects were observed for enmeshment or exploration, and no differences were observed between the Hispanics and non-Hispanics. Implications for ego identity theory and family relations theory are discussed, as well as limitations of the study methodology and proposals for future research. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / April 7, 2014. / Cohesion, Commitment, Enmeshment, Exploration, Family Differentiation, Identity / Includes bibliographical references. / Ronald L. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tomi Gomory, University Representative; Ann Mullis, Committee Member; Lenore McWey, Committee Member.

Forgiveness plays a significant role in emotionally healthy marital and family relationships, dating relationships, friendships, and relationships in the workplace, among others. Research has suggested positive physical and mental effects associated with forgiving and negative effects associated with not forgiving. However, forgiveness intervention is in its incipient stage. Researchers are currently attempting to uncover various types and levels of forgiveness, as well as the different variables that affect the forgiveness process and the dispersion among effect sizes is great. Several questions remained unanswered to date: What type of forgiveness intervention is more effective, individual or group treatment, psychotherapeutic or psychoeducational approach, long-term or brief treatment, and under what circumstances and with what populations? What participant, contextual, and intervention process variables affect the forgiving process? This meta-analysis has attempted to answer some of these questions. The statement of the null hypothesis was as follows: Forgiveness intervention for adults, delivered via individual treatment, will be equal in effectiveness to forgiveness intervention, delivered in group treatment, as defined by statistically and clinically significant and meaningful effect sizes. This meta-analysis and research methods analysis included randomized (and 1 quasiexperimental) controlled trials of forgiveness interventions with individual (not couples) adults (18 years or older) forgiving a relational transgression. The exhaustive 15-year search from 1993 through January 2008 identified 18 studies, including 26 independent forgiveness treatments (26 subgroups), which met the research criteria. The fidelity of the data coding was assessed by 2 independent raters; the interrater reliability agreement was 0.96. Based on a comprehensive review of the forgiveness literature, four hypotheses were formulated: Hypothesis 1: Participants receiving forgiveness intervention, delivered via individual treatment, will not demonstrate equal forgiveness improvement as compared to forgiveness intervention, delivered in grouptreatment, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. Hypothesis 2: Participants receiving longer duration (6 or more hours) forgiveness intervention will demonstrate greater improved forgiveness than participants receiving shorter duration (less than 6 hours) forgiveness intervention, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. Hypothesis 3: Participants, with severe offenses, receiving forgiveness intervention will demonstrate greater improvement in forgiveness than participants, with less severe offenses, receiving forgiveness intervention, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. Hypothesis 4: Participants receiving forgiveness intervention, in which the sample consists of 100% females, will demonstrate greater forgiveness improvement than participants receiving forgiveness intervention, in which the sample consists of less than 100% females, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. The first hypothesis was confirmed. The combined forgiveness effect for individual treatments was a clinically and statistically significant large ES of 1.409, 95% CI: 0.664–2.154. For group treatments, the combined effect was a clinically and statistically significant, but small, ES of 0.296, 95% CI: 0.124–.468. The null was rejected. In support of the second hypothesis, long-term treatment duration (6 or more hours) showed a significant, moderate to large ES of 0.711, 95% CI: 0.433 - 0.990. Whereas, brief treatments (less than 6 hours) demonstrated a small nonsignificant combined ES of 0.064, 95% CI: -0.089–0.216. The meta-regression of duration of treatment (hours) for all 26 subgroups demonstrated a significant relationship of hours of intervention with forgiveness effect. Corroborating the third hypothesis, interventions in which participants experienced more severe offenses, demonstrated clinically and statistically significant larger forgiveness effect, ES 0.958, 95% CI: 0.609 – 1.308 than treatments in which the participants had experienced less severe offenses, which demonstrated a nonsignificant ES of 0.075, 95% CI: -0.053 – 0.203. The fourth hypothesis was also supported. The combined effect for all treatments with 100% female participants demonstrated a large clinically and statistically significant effect size, ES 1.284, 95% CI: 0.903–1.666 (These same interventions were led by 100% female leaders). Interventions with less than 100% female participants had a small to medium statistically significant forgiveness effect of 0.273, 95% CI: 0.055 – 0.491. The meta-analysis tentatively suggested other variables that moderate improvement in forgiveness. A psychotherapeutic model, used in individual and group treatment, showed a significant large effect size, ES 1.337, 95% CI: 0.898 - 1.777; the psychoeducational-experiential models, were used in secular and faith-based treatments group treatments. They demonstrated a significant medium combined effect size, ES 0.541, 95% CI: 0.211–0.872. Faith-based group treatments (psychoeducational models, with and without experiential elements) demonstrated a large significant ES of 0.789, 95% CI: 0.145 – 1.433. Interventions with 52% or more European Americans demonstrated a significant moderate to large ES of 0.668, 95% CI: 0.369–0.966; however, for all subgroups consisting of 51% or less European Americans, the demonstrated effect was small and nonsignificant, ES 0.045, 95% CI: -0.098 to 0.188. For religious affiliation (which was reported in only 12 of the 26 treatments), Christian denominations demonstrated a clinically and statistically significant moderate to large forgiveness effect, ES 0.629, 95% CI: 0.364–0.893. The following leader characteristics were analyzed: leaders not blind to the hypothesis demonstrated a significant medium effect, ES 0.504, 95% CI: 0.228–0.780; leaders with more than 8 hours of training on the model showed a clinically and statistically significant large effect, ES 0.840, 95% CI: 0.361–1.319; and leaders with 4 or more years of experience demonstrated a large significant forgiveness effect, ES 0.658, 95% CI: 0.313–1.002. Although there were numerous research method design limitations in the primary studies and wide dispersion among effect sizes in the meta-analysis, overall findings suggested forgiveness intervention (individual and group treatment) is beneficial to clients. Improvement in forgiveness was significantly moderated by specific participant, contextual, and process variables. Individual forgiveness treatment intervention was supported as more effective, than group treatment forgiveness, as demonstrated by meaningful differences and clinically and statistically significant effect sizes. The null hypothesis was rejected and all 4 hypotheses were supported. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Interdivisional Program of Marriage and the Family in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2008. / March 21, 2008. / Research Methods, Evidenced-based Practice, Outcome Measures' Leader Effectiveness, Severity of Offense, Duration, Leader Training, Therapeutic Approach, Forgiveness Models / Includes bibliographical references. / Christine A. Readdick, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce A. Thyer, Outside Committee Member; Robert E. Lee, Committee Member; Marsha L. Rehm, Committee Member.

Unprecedented growth in our aging population mandates a corresponding increase in the research base. African Americans and elders over the age of 75 years are particularly underrepresented in the social scientific literature. Because wisdom operates as a sort of compensating mechanism to the losses due to biology, it provides an effective framework for the study of optimal aging. The current study, designed to elicit wisdom stories from African American elders, further identified wisdom as an important positive aspect of any new paradigm of aging. Following initial contact, each of four African American elders over the age of 75 years was interviewed on two separate occasions using open-ended questions. Data were analyzed utilizing procedures for hueristic inquiry (Moustakas,1990a). Themes included Acceptance, Growth, and Interaction. Less direct means of transmission predominated, including modeling, mentoring, storytelling, listening, and observation. Specific processes facilitative of wisdom transmission emerged which will inform revisions in the existing paradigms on aging in clinical, research, and policy realms. These include maintenance of a mindset and perspective characterized by the qualities of acceptance, openmindedness, and compassion, a pronounced emphasis on continual growth, the nonjudgmental valuing of interaction with others, and a commitment to conferring wisdom, particularly through mentoring and modeling. In spite of major differences in background, education, and occupation, narrative indicated similar attitudes and experiences regarding the process of transmission among participants. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2005. / April 28, 2005. / Life Satisfaction, Elders, African American, Narrative Gerontology, Wisdom, Aging, Optimal Aging / Includes bibliographical references. / Marsha L. Rehm, Professor Directing Dissertation; Nicholas Mazza, Outside Committee Member; Mary Hicks, Committee Member; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member.

This study investigated posttraumatic stress, family separations and attachment among Latin American immigrants, who were either separated or not separated from family when they immigrated from their native countries. Voluntary participants (n = 82)from 13 countries responded to the Posttraumatic Stress diagnostic Scale and the Experiences in Close Relationships Questionnaire - Revised. Thirty seven percent of participants had left family behind, either parents (while they were minors), children or spouses in their native countries. There were no differences in traumatic stress symptoms or severity associated with family separation. However,the total sample had a higher incidence of PTSD (22%)than the general population. Those who immigrated as minors had an even higher incidence of PTSD (38%). The majority of participants with such a diagnosis presented with a delayed onset of the condition. The most bothersome kind of traumatic event was exposure to violence. There were no differences on attachment related avoidance, but the family separated group scored significantly higher on attachment related anxiety than the non-separated group. Attachment related avoidance was significantly related to marital status. Finally, implications for clinical practice and further research were discussed. / Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2004. / December 3, 2003. / Immigrants, Central Americans, South Americans PTSD, Post traumatic Stress, Latin American, Refugees, Family Separations, Attachment / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Cornille, Professor Directing Dissertation; Roberto Fernandez, Outside Committee Member; Mary Hicks, Committee Member; Ann Mullis, Committee Member.

Although research in the area of academic achievement has expanded over the past several years, questions about the individual and social factors, especially in early childhood, remain unanswered. The purpose of this study is to examine to what extent parents and teacher/school's social capital and resource capital predict academic achievement in early childhood. It is also the purpose of this study to examine the usefulness of social capital theory in claming and understanding of academic achievement in early childhood. This study utilized the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, (ECLS) Kindergarten class of 1998-1999. Children, their parents, and teachers/school administrators who participated in the study in the Spring of 1999 (baseline) and the Spring of 2002 (third grade) was the focus of this research. Results from this study found that teacher/school social capital is a better predicator of children's academic achievement than parents' social capital Results from this study found that parent's resource capital was a better predictor of children's academic achievement than teacher/school resource capital. This study also discusses the findings in relation to implications for future research and policy work. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2007. / March 19, 2007. / Social Capital, Academic Achievement, ECLS-K / Includes bibliographical references. / Ann K. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Patrice Iatarola, Outside Committee Member; Ronald L. Mullis, Committee Member.