The thesis reports the results of the research carried out towards the development of an electrooptic sensor for DC and extra low frequency electric field measurement. Available cubic electrooptic crystals were compared from the sensor sensitivity point of view. A new figure of merit was used taking into account the attenuation of the electric field in the dielectric crystal and its shape. The effect of optical activity in 23 cubic crystals was analyzed using the concept of Poincare sphere. The cubic crystals were further characterised for the charge relaxation time constant to estimate their performance in DC field measurements. Crystals of Bismuth Germanate and Lithium Niobate were identified as suitable materials for the DC field sensor. The selected crystals were found suitable at extra-low-frequencies. DC field measurements, without the rotation of the crystal, were possible only with Lithium Niobate. However, its performance was influenced to a great extent by the effect of stimulated conductivity. The quarter-wave plate and the crystal of Lithium Niobate were identified as the main sources of temperature instability. A new method of temperature compensation of the quarter-wave plate is proposed. Due to the temperature instability of Lithium Niobate, mainly attributed to the pyroelectric effect and natural birefringence, it is difficult to use the sensor in practical applications. The performance of the sensor is significantly affected by the presence of an external space charge. The proposed method of its elimination using an artificial extension of the sensing element did not reduce the space charge effect adequately. The response of the sensor in a space charge environment was found to be linear and independent of the space charge density. This enabled measurements of static fields in a unipolar environment. The direct field measurements in bipolar environment suffered from a drift which is intolerable in practical measurements. The minimum detectable electric field of this sensor in the frequency range from 1 to 200Hz was 1V/m, with a signal to noise ratio equal to 0dB and a resolution of 1V/m. The static field measurements were limited to measurements of pulses with a duration of 200s, due to a long term drift of photodetectors. The minimum detectable level of DC electric field was 2.4kV/m.

<p> Lithium niobate is an important photonic material that has potential applications in MEMS. Unfortunately, it is difficult to process using conventional methods. This thesis is an exploratory study to determine the viability of using a femtosecond laser as a fabrication tool for lithium niobate. Unexpectedly, a rich range of behaviour, likely arising from the complex material structure and composition, was discovered. Depending on the processing conditions, it was demonstrated that machining can either result in deep, high-aspect ratio grooves with minimal surrounding damage or dramatic modification of the lithium niobate to great depths with very little material removal.</p> <p> When machining grooves, increasing the effective number of pulses Neff (i.e. decreasing cutting speed) gave rapidly increasing ablation depths until a threshold was reached, after which the grooves were nearly filled with amorphous material. The depth of these amorphous channels rapidly saturates and becomes nearly independent of Neff. The ablation depth dependence on fluence showed gentle and strong ablation regimes. The amorphous channel depth depended almost linearly on fluence. Subsequent laser passes over amorphous channels eventually removed the amorphous material from the groove, indicating a dependence on the time between laser pulses. Crystal orientation was not a factor.</p> <p> The results are understood in terms of incubation and wave guiding. The first pulses ablate some material and incubate a channel of material below the surface. With further pulses, increasing incubation accelerates ablation. At the threshold Neff, the absorption coefficient has increased enough that the next pulse is able to melt a significant amount of material, which expands to fill the groove. It is suggested that, initially, the amorphous material is able to guide subsequent pulses to the bottom of the channel, resulting in a very slowly increasing depth with Neff. Subsequent passes cause ablation once again since compositional changes in the amorphous material have relaxed. Irradiated samples appear thermally reduced, which would create colour centres leading to increased absorption and thus incubation.</p> <p> Femtosecond lasers are indeed able to create MEMS structures. Multiple passes in the ablation regime yielded deep grooves, with laser polarization perpendicular to the groove giving the best results. Fabrication of micro-cantilevers and bridges was demonstrated.<p> / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Oxide related research has increased as standard oxides reach their operational limits and new classes of devices are imagined that can only be realized through the use of man-made compounds. Many of these devices require high quality films in order to reach their highest potential. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is poised to become a key producer of high quality oxides. One of the most promising oxides is lithium niobate, LiNbO3, which can potentially deliver novel electronic, optic, and hybrid devices not currently possible. Growing lithium niobate using MBE is difficult. Several concepts are presented that will make this task easier. First, high temperature refractory metals can be delivered to the substrate through a novel use of low temperature chloride compounds such as niobium (V) chloride. This chloride chemistry allows low temperature sources to deliver high temperature materials to the substrate. Second, a precision, vapor-phase source and control system is prototyped for these chloride compounds achieving improved flux accuracy and expanding the capability of standard MBEs to support many sources. Chloride sources have high vapor pressures and are sensitive to temperature changes causing flux drift. The vapor-phase source removes the temperature sensitivity and eliminates thermal drifts. Third, a novel method of measuring flux with spontaneous ionzation current has been developed. This design utilizes a low noise design to measure femtoamp currents generated as an evaporant spontaneously ionizes. The measured current with additional predicted data has the potential for directly counting the atoms evaporated and controlling evaporation from a source. The design is sensitive enough to detect outgassing of the cell and cell "spitting" or other non-idealities. Monitoring these non-idealities can help improve other processes by ensuring the cell is fully outgassed and stable. Finally, a miniaturized RF induction cell prototype is shown that can eliminate the need for incandescent filaments in an oxide based MBE. The RF cell has the potential to increase reliability of MBEs for oxide work and achieve higher operating temperatures without the need for densely wound incandescent filaments or electron beam sources.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo principal a caracterização dos microcristais de niobato de lítio (LiNbO3) dopados com óxido de cromo (CrO3) e com óxido de ferro (Fe2O3), crescidos no Departamento de Física e Ciências dos Materiais do Instituto de Física e Química de São Carlos - USP. Para isso, utilizamos as seguintes técnicas: Ataque Químico Preferncial, Ressonância Paragnética Eletrônica (RPE), Absorção Ótica no Visível e Infravermelho Próximo e a Técnica Holográfica. Através da técnica de ataque químico preferencial os domínios ferroelétricos destes cristais foram observados. Os possíveis sítios que os íons Cr3+ e os íons Fe3+ ocupam na rede do LiNbO3 foram estudados por RPE, e os resultados obtidos indicam que o íon Cr3+ ocupa preferencialmente as vacâncias estruturais, enquanto os íons Fe3+ ocupam o sítio do nióbio ou do lítio. O efeito de tratamentos térmicos em atmosferas redutoras e oxidantes sobre a concentração dos íons Fe3+, Fe2+ e dos centros OH-, foram estudados através das técnicas de RPE, absorção ótica no visível e no infravermelho. Através da técnica holográfica, foram observadas altas eficiências de difração holográficas em cristais dopados com ferro. Foram feitas também medidas da variação temporal desta eficiência em cristais tratados e não tratados termicamente, e em alguns casos o efeito de acoplamento de ondas foi observado. / The present work shows the characterization of the lithium niobate (LiNbO3) doped with chromium oxide and iron oxide. Those crystals were grown in the Departamento de Física e Ciência dos Materiais - IFQSC - USP São Carlos. Several experimental techniques were applied like Preferential Chemical Etching, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), Near Infrared and Visible Optical Absorption and the Holagraphic Technique. Through the preferential chemical etching we observed the ferroelectric domains. The probable Cr3+ and Fe3+ ion site were studied with EPR, it shows the Cr3+ ions fill possibly structural vacancies, while the Fe3+ ions possibly take place on Li1+ or Nb5+ substitucionally. The thermal treatment effects at reducing and oxidizing atmospheres under several Fe3+, Fe2+ and OH- concentration were studied through EPR, visible and near infrared optical absorption. By using the holographic technique we observed holographic diffraction highly efficient in iron doped crystals. Also were made time dependence efficiency at thermally treated and non treated samples, and in some cases we observed wave coupling effect.

Neste trabalho, apresentamos resultados da caracterização Magneto-Óptica de íons terras-raras (Nd3+ e Yb3+) em monocristais de niobato de lítio (LiNbO3). Medidas de Dicroísmo Circular Magnético (MCD) e de Emissão Circularmente Polarizada em Presença de Campo Magnético (MCPE) foram realizadas pela primeira vez nesses sistemas. Os resultados foram obtidos à temperatura de 2K, e em campos magnéticos de até 5 T. Através desses estudos, foi possível identificar os números quânticos cristalinos (&#956) dos subníveis Zeeman desses íons. A partir da dependência do sinal de MCD com a intensidade de campo magnético, determinou¬se o fator giromagnético efetivo g// do estado fundamental de cada íon, obtendo-se os valores: g//Nd = (1,4 &#177 0,1) e g//Yb = (4,7 &#177 0,1). Esses valores foram confirmados através de medidas de espectroscopia de Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônica (EPR), realizadas a baixa temperatura (4-8 K), em banda X. Os espectros de EPR foram tomados em função da orientação relativa do campo magnético externo com o eixo c cristalino dos cristais, em 3 planos perpendiculares entre si. Os espectros de EPR mostram a existência de diferentes sítios ocupados pelos íons terras-raras. O sítio mais populado tem simetria axial, e para esse centro determinaram-se os fatores g efetivos g//Nd = (1,440 &#177 0,005) e g//Nd = (2,959 &#177 0,004), para o íon Nd3+, e g//Yb = (4,705 &#177 0,008) e g//Yb = (2,693 &#177 0,005) para o íon Yb3+. Espectros de MCD e MCPE obtidos para um cristal de rubi ilustram as convenções utilizadas e atestam que o sistema experimental funciona adequadamente. Os espectros obtidos nessa amostra também são originais, tendo sido resolvidas as transições permitidas com luz circularmente polarizada entre os subníveis Zeeman correspondentes aos níveis de energia 4A2 e &#8254E (2E) do íon Cr3+. / In this work we present Magneto-Optícal characterizations of rare-earth ions (Nd3+ e Yb3+) in lithium niobate (LiNbO3) single crystals. Magnetic Circular Dichroism (MCD) and Magnetic Circularly Polarized Emission (MCPE) measurements were performed for the first time on those systems. Spectra were obtained at 2K and at magnetic field strength up to 5T. From these studies, it was possible to assign the crystal quantum number (&#956) of the Zeeman sublevels of these ions, so that the sign and allowance of the electronic transitions could be predicted. From the dependence of suitable MCD spectral lines on the magnetic field strength, the effective parallel gyromagnetic factor (g//) of the ground state for each of the rare earth ions has been determined to be: g//Nd = (1,4 &#177 0,1) e g//Yb = (4,7 &#177 0,1). These values are in dose agreement to those obtained by means of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, at 4-8 K, and at X-band frequency. EPR spectra were recorded as a function of the external magnetic field orientation relative to the c crystalline axis in three mutual perpendicular planes. These spectra show evidence of multiple sites occupied by the rare-earth ions. For the most intense line seen in the spectra of each ion, it could be clearly assigned a site with axial symmetry, with effective g factors of g//Nd= (1,440 &#177 0,005) and g//Nd = (2,959 &#177 0,004), for the Nd3+3+ ion, and g//Yb = (4,705 &#177 0,008) and g//Yb= (2,693 &#177 0,005) for the Yb3+ ion. MCD and MCPE spectra recorded for a ruby crystal shows the experimental conventions used so far in this work, as well as assure that the experimental system works properly. These results are original ones, by means of which, the spectral transitions between the Zeeman sublevels of the 4A2 and &#8254E (2E) of the Cr3+ ions in ruby could be resolved.

Entanglement is the hallmark of quantum mechanics. Quantum entanglement -- putting two or more identical particles into a non-factorable state -- has been leveraged for applications ranging from quantum computation and encryption to high-precision metrology. Entanglement is a practical engineering resource and a tool for sidestepping certain limitations of classical measurement and communication. Engineered nonlinear optical waveguides are an enabling technology for generating entangled photon pairs and manipulating the state of single photons. This dissertation reports on: i) frequency conversion of single photons from the mid-infrared to 843nm as a tool for incorporating quantum memories in quantum networks, ii) the design, fabrication, and test of a prototype broadband source of polarization and frequency entangled photons; and iii) a roadmap for further investigations of this source, including applications in quantum interferometry and high-precision optical metrology. The devices presented herein are quasi-phase-matched lithium niobate waveguides. Lithium niobate is a second-order nonlinear optical material and can mediate optical energy conversion to different wavelengths. This nonlinear effect is the basis of both quantum frequency conversion and entangled photon generation, and is enhanced by i) confining light in waveguides to increase conversion efficiency, and ii) quasi-phase matching, a technique for engineering the second-order nonlinear response by locally altering the direction of a material's polarization vector. Waveguides are formed by diffusing titanium into a lithium niobate wafer. Quasi-phase matching is achieved by electric field poling, with multiple stages of process development and optimization to fabricate the delicate structures necessary for broadband entangled photon generation. The results presented herein update and optimize past fabrication techniques, demonstrate novel optical devices, and propose future avenues for device development. Quantum frequency conversion from 1848nm to 843nm is demonstrated for the first time, with >75% single-photon conversion efficiency. A new electric field poling methodology is presented, combining elements from multiple historical techniques with a new fast-feedback control system. This poling technique is used to fabricate the first chirped-and-apodized Type-II quasi-phase-matched structures in titanium-diffused lithium niobate waveguides, culminating in a measured phasematching spectrum that is predominantly Gaussian (R^2 = 0.80), nearly eight times broader than the unchirped spectrum, and agrees well with simulations.

Cette thèse concerne l’étude théorique des mécanismes de couplage acousto-optique dans les matériaux nanostructurés : les cristaux à bandes interdites simultanées photoniques et phononiques, dénommés aussi cristaux phoXoniques. Le but de ce travail est d’explorer le potentiel de ces structures : réduire la consommation énergétique et la taille des composants, en exploitant les phénomènes de confinement et d’ondes lentes. Pour cette étude, des modèles numériques par éléments finis sont développés, ils visent à établir les conditions pour une efficacité accrue et à déterminer les paramètres des réseaux propres à favoriser de larges bandes interdites. La recherche des modes propres confinés optiques et acoustiques propices à l’interaction acousto-optique est ensuite entreprise. Des modèles numériques sont créés pour déterminer le couplage acousto-optique en tenant compte des mécanismes de couplage tels que l’effet photoélastique, optomécanique ou électrooptique.Plusieurs configurations d’interactions sont étudiées afin de déterminer l’impact de l’anisotropie des matériaux, des éléments de symétrie des modes de cavité, de la nature des réseaux et des matériaux qui les constituent tels que le silicium et le niobate de lithium.Enfin, un travail de conception à vocation applicatif est proposé. Il met en avant la possibilité d’exploiter les mécanismes de couplage dans un dispositif de type modulateur confiné dans une cavité acousto-optique. / Theoretical acousto-optic couplings mechanisms in nano-structured materials are investigated in the present thesis: the photonic and phononic crystals with simultaneous bandgaps, also named phoxonic crystals. The aim of the study consists in exploring their potential in order to reduce energy consumption, sizes of devices, by taking advantage ofthe confinement property and slow wave phenomena.For our investigations, numerical models, using finite element method, were developed to determine optimized conditions for a better efficiency and suitable parameters promoting wide bandgaps. Acoustic and optical confined modes search favorable for acousto-optic interaction is performed. Numerical models were created to compute the acousto-opticcouplings by taking into account various coupling mechanisms such as the photo-elastic, opto-mechanic and electro-optic effects.Many interaction configurations are investigated in order to determine the impact of material anisotropy, the cavity mode symmetries, various lattices or different materials such as silicon and lithium niobate.Finally, a first approach for a designed component is proposed. It shows the possibility to use coupling mechanisms for a device such as an optical modulator by using acousto-optic confined modes in a cavity.

Bragg grating reflectors etched in amorphous silicon overlay films have been integrated with Ti:LiNbO3 optical waveguides. With a 12.5 mm long grating segment and an etch depth of ~ 93 nm in a 105 nm-thick silicon film, a narrow (0.05 nm) spectral bandwidth with a record high transmission dip (> 20 dB) was achieved at a wavelength of ~1542 nm for TE polarization on an x-cut, y-propagating substrate. The reflectance in the channel waveguides is found to be strongly dependent on the depth of the etched grating. The 3-dB bandwidth of 0.05 nm obtained for all tested samples is the smallest reported for waveguides in LiNbO3. The effect of the Bragg waveguide loss factor on the transmittance and reflectance spectra is investigated using a model for contra-directional coupling that includes an attenuation coefficient. The Bragg grating spectral characteristics are exploited to fabricate distributed Bragg feedback modulators (DBFM) and Bragg reflector Fabry-Perot modulators (BFPM). The sharp cut-off in transmission and reflection spectra, which is an inherent characteristic of Bragg grating, was tuned by applying voltage via the linear electrooptic effect, to produce intensity modulation. The Bragg grating based modulators consume less electric power compared to polarization intensity modulators (PIMs). The DBFM demonstrates 1/1.6 times the modulating voltage of a PIM with identical waveguide and electrode structure. The BFPM shows 1/3.3 times the modulating voltage of the PIM. No difference in the frequency response is observed among the three modulators. Comparison of the modulation sensitivity in the linear region indicates that the Bragg grating based modulators provide better sensitivity than that of the PIM with identical waveguide and electrode structure. These results indicate the potential advantage of the Bragg grating based modulators for enhanced modulation efficiency over conventional modulators. Further improvements can be expected from the optimization of the electrode design.

The temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF), electromechanical coupling coefficient (K2) and surface acoustic wave (SAW) velocity are the major factors when choosing the substrates for surface acoustic wave devices. There exist a wide range for the designer to controll the above factors. This thesis adopted several methods to change the properties of SAW devices. First, the SAW velocity is increased using aluminum nitride (AlN) thin films deposited on z-cut LiNbO3 substrates. Besides, the ST-quartz is adopted as substrate for comparison to clarify the temperature characteristic of AlN itself. The well-known positive TCF material, silicon dioxide (SiO2), is also deposited on z-cut LiNbO3 substrates for the purpose of improving the TCF of SAW devices. Finally, the optimal piezoelectric bilayer structures will be conducted for the improvement of the properties of SAW devices on LiNbO3 substrate. AlN and SiO2 thin films are selected to be deposited on z-cut LiNbO3 and ST-cut quartz substrates using the reactive RF magnetron sputtering. The characteristics of AlN thin films are evaluated using the analyses of XRD, SEM and AFM. The optimized growth parameters of highly c-axis oriented AlN films deposited on LiNbO3 substrate are sputtering pressure of 3.5 mTorr, nitrogen concentration (N2/N2+Ar) of 60%, RF power density of 8.1 W/cm2 and substrate temperature of 400¢J. On the other hand, the optimal parameters for highly c-axis oriented AlN films deposited on quartz substrate are sputtering pressure of 15 mTorr, nitrogen concentration of 30%, RF power density of 8.1 W/cm2 and substrate temperature of 400¢J. In addition, the interdigital transducers (IDTs) are fabricated on LiNbO3, AlN/LiNbO3, SiO2/LiNbO3, quartz and AlN/quartz substrates, respectively. The characteristic parameters of SAW devices are measured by Hewlett-Packard (HP) 8720 network analyzer. For SiO2/LiNbO3 SAW devices, the SiO2 thin films reveal the compensation of TCF, but the surface wave velocity remain almost unchanged. For AlN/quartz SAW devices, the positive temperature coefficient of AlN is clarfied by taking ST-quartz substrates as comparison. For AlN/LiNbO3 SAW devices, the characteristic improvements of frequency increase and TCF compensation of LiNbO3 SAW devices are achieved at the same time.