L’eau et la vie sont inégalement réparties. Ceci entrave le développement des sociétés, et fait apparaître des situations de tension,dont l’intensité et la fréquence varient selon le contexte climatique, la densité des populations et donc de la demande. Avec le changement climatique en cours et la hausse des besoins en eau (dont la « réserve » à laisser aux milieux naturels), le niveau des tensions est susceptible de s’élever, et la fréquence des très basses eaux de s’accroître. Dans le sud-est de la France, l’aire soumise au climat méditerranéen est particulièrement concernée par la fragilité des ressources en eau en période estivale (une saison très peu arrosée et une forte attractivité touristique, etc.). De plus, une modification du régime climatique (diminution des apports pluviométriques, extrêmes plus marqués, etc.) affectera nécessairement davantage les bassins alimentés par des ressources très locales, tels les cours d’eau et les bassins de vie ne bénéficiant pas de l’influence des grands fleuves allogènes à l’aire climatique méditerranéenne (Rhône, Durance, etc.). La réflexion sur le manque ou la pénurie en eau, de qualité propre pour satisfaire les usages sur ces territoires, peut dès lors être portée sur la façon dont un tel risque se construit (succession des étapes, retentissement d’un facteur sur les autres, etc.), et sur la façon dont l’évolution des éléments structurels et des forçages extérieurs conduit ou non à s’approcher d’une situation indésirable.La démarche engagée ici propose de décliner cette approche particulière aux basses eaux. Il s’agit alors de répondre à un triple objectif : (1) identifier et compiler au sein d’une base de données spécifique les informations essentielles pour appréhender le phénomène ; (2) caractériser l’état moyen des basses eaux à partir de situations locales et par le biais de descripteurs statistiques robustes ; (3) déterminer les modalités de son évolution vers des états critiques. Ce travail conduit dans un premier temps au développement d’une modélisation probabiliste, laquelle est conçue pour être déployée dans différentes échelles spatiales et dans différentes temporalités. La réflexion est ensuite étendue aux modalités méthodologiques et techniques pour l’élaboration d’indicateurs analytiques et d’indices synthétiques d’évaluation de la situation de tension sur la ressource.La démarche aboutit enfin à des outils numériques simples et intuitifs, mobilisables à des fins opérationnelles comme support d’aide à la décision pour la mise en place de mesures d’anticipation et de régulation, et transposables à tout territoire méditerranéen. / Water and life are unequally distributed. This hinders the development of societies, and leads to situations of tension, whoseintensity and frequency vary according to climatic conditions, population density and according therefore to demand. With theongoing climate change and the rising water requirements (the stock dedicated to the natural environment), the level of tensionis likely to rise, such as the frequency of very low water. The French Mediterranean territories are particularly concerned withthe fragility of water resources during summertime (a little watered season, a strong tourist appeal, etc.). In addition, everymodification in the climate regime (the decreasing of rainfall inputs, etc.) would necessarily affect more the small catchmentwith very local resources, such as rivers and living areas which don’t benefit from the influence of major rivers (Rhone, Durance,etc.).The reflection on water scarcity can therefore be focused on the structure of such a risk (sequence of steps, the impact of onefactor on the others, etc.), and on the conditions that make the system reach an undesirable situation.The approach adopted here suggests to decline this particular approach to low water. Three objectives are here stated: (1) identifyand compile, within a specific database, the essential information to understand the phenomenon; (2) characterize the meanstate of low water from local situations and through robust statistical descriptors; (3) determine the terms of its evolution tocritical states.The whole work leads first to the development of a probabilistic modeling, which is designed to be deployed in different spatialscales and in dfferent times. The reflection is then extended to the methodological and technical arrangements that would allowthe development of analytical indicators and synthetic indexes for assessing the resource level of tension.The approach finally results in simple and intuitive digital tools, that can be mobilized for operational purposes such asdecision-making support for the implementation of anticipatory measures and regulation, and that can transferable to anyMediterranean territory.

Low water activity foods (LWAF), specifically nuts and dried fruits, have been generally considered safe because they do not support the growth of foodborne pathogens. However, many pathogens have been noted to survive in LWAF for considerable periods of time, and a number of recent outbreaks and recalls have implicated various types of nuts and dried fruits. The Food Safety Modernization Act requires food processors to develop preventive control plans that make ready-to-eat LWAF safer for consumers. The presented research was designed to investigate several aspects of LWAF safety by evaluating a steam process as a strategy to remove pathogen contamination from LWAF, modeling the inactivation of such treatments, and studying the thermal resistances of two E. coli strains in low-water activity solutions. Low-temperature, vacuum-assisted steam (vacuum-steam) was evaluated as a potential intervention and preventive control to remove pathogens from the surface of LWAF without using high-heat treatments that could damage product quality. The presented work examined the efficacy of vacuum-steam (<85°C) as a means to decontaminate the surface of whole macadamia nuts, dried apricot halves, and raisins from Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) contamination. The low-temperature steam treatments successfully reduced all pathogens by >4 log CFU/g from the surfaces of the foods. Additionally, Pediococcus acidilactici, proved to be a surrogate organism for these pathogens and could be used to challenge and validate similar treatments within processing plants. The data were fit to models, which showed that food type significantly impacted the fit, with the Weibull model best describing bacterial inactivation kinetics on raisins and macadamia nuts, and the Gompertz model best describing reductions on the apricot halves. The models were challenged for validation of their abilities to predict times required for 3-log reductions using internal and external datasets, determining the usefulness to industry members who wish to design similar thermal treatments for LWAF. Comparing predicted values from internally constructed models to observed values generated from external data, models were shown to be limited in scope and application and could only be applied to pathogen inactivation on different LWAF or thermal processes in certain circumstances. First-order and Weibull model predictions of bacterial reductions on dried apricots had varied success in predicting times for 3-log reductions on other thermally treated LWAF. However, the models of bacterial reductions on thermally treated macadamia nuts frequently overestimated the times required for 3-log bacterial reductions for other LWAF. In an effort to understand the effect that reduced water activity has specifically on STEC, two strains were investigated for induced thermal resistance due to osmotic stress. Thermal resistance of STEC strains (O121:H19 and O157:H7) were evaluated on the basis of strain variation, culture preparation, and water activity (D- and z-values). At the lowest treatment temperature (56°C), O121 displayed greater heat resistance than O157, and the broth-grown samples exhibited greater heat resistance than the lawn-grown cells, but significant differences were not observed at higher temperatures. Samples in reduced-water activity solutions displayed reduced thermal resistance at 56°C, but the z-values were 29-43% higher than those of high-water activity samples. While water activity has been shown to impact thermal resistance of pathogens, comparisons of STEC thermal resistance according to the D- and z-values revealed that other factors also play roles in pathogen thermal resistance on LWAF. Results from the collection of experiments conclude that efficacy of thermal treatments is impacted by the physiological state of the cells, stress experienced in the food matrix, and characteristics of the food, including water activity and composition. / Doctor of Philosophy / Consumers expect foods they purchase to be safe to consume by themselves and family members, particularly those that are ready-to-eat with no additional cooking requirements. Many of these foods are low-water activity foods (LWAF), like nuts and dried fruits, with very little water content that could be used by bacteria. These foods may be preferred snack foods due to their affordability, long shelf lives, and health benefits over other types of snack foods. Until recently, LWAF were generally considered safe because they do not support the growth of foodborne pathogens due to the lack of moisture or water within the food. However, a number of recent outbreaks related to various types of nuts and dried fruits have proven that many pathogens can survive in dried foods, even if not actively growing, for considerable amounts of time. Designed to address these types of food safety issues, the Food Safety Modernization Act recognizes risks associated with foods and responded with regulations requiring food processors to take steps to make ready-to-eat LWAF, like nuts and dried fruits, safer for consumers. A popular strategy is to treat foods with heat to destroy pathogens, however the quality attributes of some nuts and dried fruits could be damaged by high-heat treatments like roasting. An alternative process uses a vacuum to form steam at lower temperatures, allowing for efficient heat transfer through water droplets to the surface of the foods, thus causing less damage to the foods without introducing too much moisture. This research evaluated how this process could be used by food processors to remove harmful bacteria from the surfaces of whole macadamia nuts, dried apricot halves, and raisins. Results indicated that the low-temperature steam treatments successfully reduced Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) by >4 log CFU/g (>99.99%) from the surfaces of the foods. Additionally, a nonpathogenic lactic acid bacterium, Pediococcus acidilactici, exhibited similar or greater heat tolerance, which would allow food processors to use it as a substitute, or surrogate, for in-plant studies without introducing harmful bacteria into the food processing environment. Mathematical models were used to describe the trends of bacterial death due to the steam treatments, and the results indicated that the type of food significantly impacted the reduction of bacteria. The models were tested using additional data collected within our own laboratory, as well as others. Results indicated that some of the models could be used as predictors of bacterial death for similar LWAF but can only be applied with caution and consideration for the type of food and process. Additionally, two different E. coli strains associated with outbreaks (O121:H19 and O157:H7) were investigated to understand impacts of strain variation, growth method, and water activity on thermal resistance. Some differences in heat resistance were observed between the strains and between the growth methods. Additionally, the reduced water activity seemed to decrease the bacteria's ability to withstand some heat treatments. Overall, thermal resistance studies indicated that several factors, in addition to water activity, impact pathogens' development of resistance to heat treatments. The experiments' results show that there are complex relationships between bacteria and the food they inhabit. Food processors must consider these relationships in order to design the best thermal processes to make LWAF safe for consumers.

L’estuaire de la Gironde est le plus grand estuaire macrotidal d’Europe formé par la confluence de la Garonne (où se situe l’agglomération de Bordeaux) et de la Dordogne. L’une de ses principales caractéristiques est la présence d’une zone à forte turbidité (bouchon vaseux) où les processus hétérotrophes (dégradation de la matière organique) sont favorisés et où au contraire les processus autotrophes (production primaire) sont limités par le manque de lumière. Ainsi, des déficits en oxygène pouvant être préjudiciables à la vie aquatique se développent systématiquement dans la zone du bouchon vaseux de la Garonne estuarienne. Ces préoccupations environnementales ont donc conduit à étudier en détail dans le cadre de ce travail de doctorat, les facteurs environnementaux qui provoquent ces hypoxies estuariennes. Dans un premier temps, j’ai réalisé un suivi sur le réseau d’eaux urbaines partiellement séparatif et unitaire de la Communauté Urbaine de Bordeaux, de ses stations d’épurations et déversoirs d’orage afin d’appréhender les apports urbains de matières organique et azotées et de les comparer à ceux en provenance du bassin versant amont. Bien que les deux stations d’épuration réalisent des abattements très significatifs sur la matière organique et l’ammonium, il s’avère que les flux vers le milieu naturel restent importants, notamment durant les périodes estivales, pendant lesquelles des orages peuvent engendrer des déversements d’effluents non traités. Ensuite, des expériences d’incubations ont permis de mettre en évidence le caractère fortement labile de cette matière organique urbaine. Le carbone organique dissous et l’ammonium, contenus dans les eaux usées, sont des composés fortement consommateurs en oxygène. Des expériences de respirométrie ont également permis d’estimer les taux de consommation en oxygène nettement plus importants dans les effluents urbains que dans les eaux de la Gironde. Enfin, l’analyse des données du réseau de mesures en continu de la qualité physico-chimique des eaux MAGEST (MArel Gironde ESTuaire) a démontré que l’estuaire subit dans sa section garonnaise des périodes d’hypoxie lors d’étiages prononcés, la masse d’eau la plus affectée par ces désoxygénations étant celle qui oscille aux alentours de l’agglomération de Bordeaux. Si ces résultats démontrent l’impact significatif de l’agglomération Bordelaise, le traitement statistique des données MAGEST pour la période 2005-2011 montre que les phénomènes de désoxygénation sont accrus en période d’étiage prononcé, en présence du bouchon vaseux et lorsque la température de l’eau est élevée. Dans ces conditions, l’oxygène dissous, déjà présent en faible quantité, peut être rapidement consommé lors d’apports supplémentaires d’eaux urbaines non traitées qui ont lieu pendant de fortes précipitations orageuses. Ce travail démontre également que le type de traitement biologique des eaux usées employé par les stations d’épuration et les capacités de stockage temporaire d’eaux d’orages ont un rôle critique sur les bilans de ces composés rejetés dans le milieu naturel. Enfin, ce travail permet de proposer aux gestionnaires des stratégies de rejets des effluents à court et moyen terme, en fonction des conditions hydrologiques et physico-chimiques du milieu, dans le but de limiter leur impact sur l’oxygénation des eaux estuariennes de la Garonne. / The Gironde Estuary is the largest macrotidal estuary in Western Europa, formed by the Garonne River (where the urban area of Bordeaux is located) and the Dordogne River. One of its main characteristics is the presence of a Turbidity Maximum Zone (TMZ) where heterotrophic processes (organic matter decomposition) are favored and where low penetration of light limits autotrophic processes (photosynthetic activity). Low dissolved oxygen (DO) that could impact aquatic biota occurred exclusively in the fluvial, low salinity and high turbidity sections of the estuary. These environmental concerns have led to study in detail in this work factors that cause estuarine hypoxia. First, I have estimated organic matter and ammonium fluxes from urban inputs in separate and combined sewer network of the Urban Community of Bordeaux, its wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) and combined sewer overflow, to compare them to the upstream watershed inputs. Even if the two WWTPs succeed in significant reduction in organic matter and ammonium contents of effluents, discharges into estuarine waters are important especially during summer, periods while storm events can generate untreated effluent inputs. This work demonstrates the high lability of this urban organic matter through incubation experiments. The dissolved organic carbon and ammonium contents in wastewater consume oxygen. Respirometry experiments allowed us to estimate higher oxygen uptake rates in wastewater than in the waters of the Gironde Estuary. Finally, the analysis of 7-yr data series from the continuous monitoring of the physico-chemical water quality (MAGEST network: MArel Gironde ESTuary) highlights periods of hypoxia in the upstream section of the estuary during pronounced low water around the Bordeaux conurbation. Statistical treatments of the 7-yr time series of DO concentration demonstrate the significant impact of the Bordeaux metropolitan area as it appears that the under-oxygenations increase during marked low water, in the presence of the TMZ, when the water temperature is high, and where the dissolved oxygen content is already low and can be quickly consumed after untreated storm water discharges. This study also shows that the nature of biological treatment used by the WWTPs and the temporary storage capacity of storm water have a critical role in the release of such compounds into the environment. This work finally provides strategies for effluent discharges to water managers, to short and medium terms, based on hydrological and physico-chemical conditions of the environment in order to limit their impact on the water oxygenation of the Garonne River.

L'étude présentée dans cette thèse porte sur une analyse expérimentale des propriétés physiques (densités, porosité, granulométrie) et hydrodynamiques (isotherme de désorption, courbe caractéristique sol-eau, perméabilité à saturation) d'un sol type aride du Burkina Faso et une simulation numérique des transferts d'eau. La modélisation des transferts est abordée par une approche thermodynamique qui constitue un cadre général pour décrire à la fois l'état de l'eau dans le sol et les mécanismes de transferts mis en jeu : filtration de la phase liquide, diffusion de la vapeur d'eau, changement de phase liquide-vapeur. Des essais expérimentaux de transferts d'eau dans des colonnes de sol hermétiquement fermées et placées dans une enceinte régulée en température, ont permis d'établir l'évolution des profils de teneur en eau au cours du temps. La configuration expérimentale est choisie de sorte que seule la filtration de la phase liquide de l'eau dans le sol soit prépondérante. Les profils expérimentaux ont servi à l'estimation par approche inverse de la conductivité hydraulique dans les faibles teneurs en eau. La prise en compte des écoulements par films dans la modélisation du coefficient de perméabilité relative corrige les insuffisances des modèles capillaires. Les coefficients de changement de phase proche et loin de l'équilibre modélisés à partir de résultats expérimentaux permettent la mise en évidence du non-équilibre liquide/gaz dans les transferts aux faibles teneurs en eau. Il ressort que le non-équilibre dans les transferts aux faibles teneurs en eau est plus marqué avec le modèle capillaire avec un front de séchage plus franc à la surface. La prise en compte des écoulements par films prolonge la filtration de la phase liquide de l'eau jusqu'à l'état hygroscopique du sol avec un flux d'eau liquide maintenu à la surface du sol jusqu'à des temps plus longs. / The study presented in this thesis focuses on an experimental analysis of physical properties (densities, porosity, particle size distribution) and hydrodynamic properties (desorption isotherm, soil-water characteristic curve, saturated permeability) of an arid soil from Burkina Faso and numerical simulation of water transfers. The transfer modelling is addressed through thermodynamic approach which provides a general framework to describe both the water state in the soil and the transport mechanisms: filtration of liquid phase, water vapor diffusion, liquid/vapor phase change. Experimental attempts of water transfer in soil columns, sealed and placed into a controlled temperature chamber, have established the evolution of water content profiles over time. The experimental configuration is chosen so that only the filtration of water liquid phase is taken into account. These experimental profiles were used to estimate, by inverse approach, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity at low water contents. Consideration of film flows in the relative permeability modelling corrects the shortcomings of capillary bundle models used to describe water flow from saturation to oven-dryness. The coefficients of phase change near and far from equilibrium modeled from experimental results prove non-equilibrium liquid/gas existence. It appears that the liquid/gas non-equilibrium at low water content is more pronounced with the capillary model with a frank drying front at the soil surface. Consideration of film flows extends liquid phase filtration into the soil until the hygroscopic state with a liquid water flux maintained at the soil surface for longer times.