Thesis (MPH.) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Background: Malnutrition has become a problem in the world, with 2.2 million deaths of children under five years of age globally have been linked to growth retardation, stunting and severe wasting, while other 600 000 children in the same age group are said to have died due to deficiencies in Vitamin A (Black, Allen, Bhutta, Caulfield, De Onis, Ezzati, Mathers, Rivera, and Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group, 2008 ). Objectives: This study aimed at determining the prevalence of malnutrition in children below 5 years of age, and to quantify stunting, underweight, wasting, overweight and obesity of children in the same group. Methods: This was a descriptive quantitative study. The data for the study was collected from 10 clinics, situated in the Ba-Phalaborwa District Municipality, using a standardized questionnaire. Stratified random sampling was used and stata program was used to analyse the data. Results: A total of 404 of mothers gave positive responses for children to participate in the current study, yielding to 97.1% response rate. Fifty-two-point-two percent of these children were females. The average age of the mothers of these children was 28.3 ±7.0 years Fifty-three-point-four percent of the mothers were single, 27% were divorced, 18.6% were married and 0.5% were widowed. The overall prevalence of malnutrition among the children was 26.7%. Males had higher percentage of underweight with 19.1%, compared to females (9.9%). The highest prevalence of malnutrition in females occurred in the age group 48-59 months, at 40.0%, followed by the age groups 0-11 months, 36-47 months, 24-35 months and 12-23 months at 26.9%, 25.0%, 24.0% and 17.5%, respectively. Of the different types of malnutrition, the occurrence of obesity was the lowest among the children. Conclusion The results of the findings are consistent with the findings of other studies. However, this study could not find that characteristics such as education, type of residence or financial background contribute immensely to child malnutrition.

Thesis (M. Sc.(Physiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Aim: The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence and risk factors associated with malnutrition and nutritional status of rural and urban primary school children aged 6–9 years. Literature background: Malnutrition is one of the leading causes of childhood morbidity and mortality in developing countries, affecting 10.9% of people globally, particularly in Southern Asian (15.7%) and sub-Saharan African (23.2%) countries undergoing urbanisation. Urbanisation affects diet, physical activity levels, body fatness, body composition and socio-economic factors. There is currently a shortage of information on the effect of urbanisation on nutritional status, especially in poor areas such as the Limpopo Province of South Africa. It is important to understand the effects that body fatness and associated risk factors have on stunting, wasting, underweight, and overweight/obesity in urban and rural children. Subjects and design: This was a cross-sectional study including rural (n=106) and urban (n=68) primary school children aged 6–9 years. Anthropometric (weight and height) and skinfold measurements were taken and a 24-hour recall dietary assessment was conducted twice to include a week day and a weekend day. A questionnaire was used to gather demographic, health, dietary and physical activity information. Results: The prevalence of stunting, wasting, underweight, and overweight/obese children in this population was 14%, 6%, 20%, and 26% respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence stunting, wasting, and underweight were higher in rural areas compared to urban areas. Meanwhile, the prevalence of overweight/obesity was higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Gender, area (urban/rural) (p=0.0001), birthweight, time spent on sedentary activities, monthly household income (p=0.0210), mode of transport to school, and breastfeeding (p=0.0560) were all found to be significantly associated with malnutrition. Weekday dietary intake of Vitamins A and D was significally associated with BF%, whereas weekend consumption of energy, protein, calcium, iron, phosphorus, and zinc were not significantly associated with BF%. The mean energy and calcium intake between the urban and rural vi population only differed significantly over weekends and not during the week, while vitamin D differed significantly between urban and rural populations during the week only. Conclusions: The current study demonstrates that children in rural areas were significantly more wasted than those residing in urban areas, while those residing in urban areas were significantly more overweight/obese compared to rural areas. All indicators used for undernutrition were associated significantly with gender and the prevalence were higher males compared to females, but this significance disappeared for overnutrition. Families with a higher income tended to have children who were overweight or obese compared to families with a lower income. Children spending a lot of time on sedentary activities were more likely to be overweight or obese, and breastfeeding seemed to protect children from becoming overweight or obese, while low birth weight was associated with stunting. The weekaday and week-end diets indicate that school feeding schemes in the rural areas may be effective in increasing total energy intake in children and this should be further investigated. In this population, stunting, wasting, and underweight were not limited to rural areas, and should still be a health concern in urban areas, despite the fact that overweight/obesity is also prevalent in urban areas. Thus, overweight/obesity in this population can be prevented by promoting breastfeeding and physical activity, while at the same time discouraging children from partaking in too many sedentary activities. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Thesis (M. Sc. (Physiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Aim: The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence and risk factors associated with malnutrition and nutritional status of rural and urban primary school children aged 6–9 years. Literature background: Malnutrition is one of the leading causes of childhood morbidity and mortality in developing countries, affecting 10.9% of people globally, particularly in Southern Asian (15.7%) and sub-Saharan African (23.2%) countries undergoing urbanisation. Urbanisation affects diet, physical activity levels, body fatness, body composition and socio-economic factors. There is currently a shortage of information on the effect of urbanisation on nutritional status, especially in poor areas such as the Limpopo Province of South Africa. It is important to understand the effects that body fatness and associated risk factors have on stunting, wasting, underweight, and overweight/obesity in urban and rural children. Subjects and design: This was a cross-sectional study including rural (n=106) and urban (n=68) primary school children aged 6–9 years. Anthropometric (weight and height) and skinfold measurements were taken and a 24-hour recall dietary assessment was conducted twice to include a week day and a weekend day. A questionnaire was used to gather demographic, health, dietary and physical activity information. Results: The prevalence of stunting, wasting, underweight, and overweight/obese children in this population was 14%, 6%, 20%, and 26% respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence stunting, wasting, and underweight were higher in rural areas compared to urban areas. Meanwhile, the prevalence of overweight/obesity was higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Gender, area (urban/rural) (p=0.0001), birthweight, time spent on sedentary activities, monthly household income (p=0.0210), mode of transport to school, and breastfeeding (p=0.0560) were all found to be significantly associated with malnutrition. Weekday dietary intake of Vitamins A and D was significally associated with BF%, whereas weekend consumption of energy, protein, calcium, iron, phosphorus, and zinc were not significantly associated with BF%. The mean energy and calcium intake between the urban and rural vi population only differed significantly over weekends and not during the week, while vitamin D differed significantly between urban and rural populations during the week only. Conclusions: The current study demonstrates that children in rural areas were significantly more wasted than those residing in urban areas, while those residing in urban areas were significantly more overweight/obese compared to rural areas. All indicators used for undernutrition were associated significantly with gender and the prevalence were higher males compared to females, but this significance disappeared for overnutrition. Families with a higher income tended to have children who were overweight or obese compared to families with a lower income. Children spending a lot of time on sedentary activities were more likely to be overweight or obese, and breastfeeding seemed to protect children from becoming overweight or obese, while low birth weight was associated with stunting. The weekaday and week-end diets indicate that school feeding schemes in the rural areas may be effective in increasing total energy intake in children and this should be further investigated. In this population, stunting, wasting, and underweight were not limited to rural areas, and should still be a health concern in urban areas, despite the fact that overweight/obesity is also prevalent in urban areas. Thus, overweight/obesity in this population can be prevented by promoting breastfeeding and physical activity, while at the same time discouraging children from partaking in too many sedentary activities. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

MSc (Microbiology) / Department of Microbiology

MCur / Department of Advanced Nursing Science / Malnutrition is globally considered the key risk factors of illness and death which affect over 90 million children under the age of five. The study aim was to determine the perception of caregivers regarding factors contributing to malnutrition in children under 5 years in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo province. A qualitative approach, explorative, descriptive and contextual design was used in the study. Nine participants were sampled through simple random sampling. Data was collected through in- depth individual interview and was analysed through Tesch‘s analytical approach. Measures to ensure trustworthiness and ethical consideration were adhered to throughout the study. Three themes emerged from study, namely: caregivers perceived contributory factors to malnutrition, financial difficulties and help that were sought from various available resources. In conclusion, feeding practices to most of the participants was a challenge, they had financial difficulties since they were not working and depended on social and child grants for living, and the study recommends the development of strategies to assist caregivers in preventing malnutrition in children. / NRF

A high rate of micronutrient deficiencies persists in Africa with the most vulnerable groups being women and children. The Moringa oleifera tree has been identified to help alleviate malnutrition at household level because of its rich content of vitamin A in its plant form - beta-carotene, iron and vitamin C. The objectives of this study was to identify households that consumed Moringa, to identify households that required diet diversification through the use of a Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) and to determine the acceptability of various dishes prepared from Moringa leaves as a possible contribution to the alleviation of malnutrition in resource poor communities. The dietary diversity score of the traditional Bapedi community is 4.7 and the results of the acceptability test of dishes prepared with Moringa indicated that Moringa could be recommended as an additional food ingredient to add micronutrient to the diet of Bapedi communities. / Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / M.A. (Human Ecology)

A high rate of micronutrient deficiencies persists in Africa with the most vulnerable groups being women and children. The Moringa oleifera tree has been identified to help alleviate malnutrition at household level because of its rich content of vitamin A in its plant form - beta-carotene, iron and vitamin C. The objectives of this study was to identify households that consumed Moringa, to identify households that required diet diversification through the use of a Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) and to determine the acceptability of various dishes prepared from Moringa leaves as a possible contribution to the alleviation of malnutrition in resource poor communities. The dietary diversity score of the traditional Bapedi community is 4.7 and the results of the acceptability test of dishes prepared with Moringa indicated that Moringa could be recommended as an additional food ingredient to add micronutrient to the diet of Bapedi communities. / Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / M.A. (Human Ecology)