Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Lack of collaboration amongst resource user groups in protected areas undermines effective community participation in protected area management. Currently, collaborative approaches are recognised as a planning tool and less of a management tool. However practice reveals that utmost, participatory approaches are recognised in management plans, but fail in the actual implementation. With this study an attempt was made to identify a possible means of enhancing community participation in protected area management by evaluating the extent to which the community of stakeholders in Lake Malawi National Park effectively engage in the management of the protected area. To achieve this aim, the research identified the stakeholders; their relationships with the park; and their relationships with each other. It further evaluated the present level of collaboration on whether it was adequate to enhance community participation in the sustainable management of the park. This research followed a descriptive-qualitative approach because the researcher was interested in exploring wider perceptions of people. It took the form of a case study to allow for an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon through understanding the participants‟ point of view in their natural setting. A critical review of related literature and a field research were conducted where data was collected from park documents and seven representatives from three stakeholder groups through the use of semi-structured interviews in English and Chichewa (official and national languages respectively); supported by note taking. The study has four findings. Firstly, that the primary stakeholders were the park authority management, lodge operators and indigenous people (villagers). Secondly, that stakeholders were found to have a special relationship with the park as it provided business opportunities, a source of livelihood, a sense of empowerment, relaxation space and employment. Thirdly, that stakeholders were not satisfied with the level of relationships in the park especially towards park authority management. This is a deviation from the expected in that for a long time relations in the park were seen to be faulted by the indigenous people and especially towards lodge operators, yet in this research, the relationship between these two stakeholder groups were found to be satisfactory. Fourthly, the research found that whilst there were reduced levels of conflict and that stakeholders related as and when need arose, the general level of collaboration was below the community‟s expectation. On a positive note, the findings showed the willingness of the stakeholders to form a representative body which they all felt would be better placed to negotiate decision-making and would improve the level of collaboration and management in the park. Five recommendations followed on how collaboration and stakeholder skills could be improved in the park and some of which include: the speedy facilitation of the registration of an already existing umbrella association; and the formal recognition of tour guides by Government. These issues if critically looked at, will create an environment in which stakeholders are able to collaborate and work as a community in the management of the protected area which is necessary for conservation and sustainability of livelihoods, the park‟s objectives. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ʼn Gebrek aan samewerking tussen die gebruikersgroepe van hulpbronne in beskermde gebiede ondermyn doeltreffende gemeenskapsdeelname in die bestuur van hierdie areas. Samewerkingsbenaderings word tans gesien as ʼn beplanningsinstrument eerder as ʼn bestuursinstrument. Die praktyk wys egter dat terwyl deelnemende benaderings herken word in bestuursplanne, dit nie geïmplementeer word nie. In hierdie studie is daar gepoog om moontlike maniere te identifiseer om gemeenskapsdeelname te verbeter in die bestuur van beskermde gebiede deur middel van ʼn evaluering van die mate waartoe die gemeenskap van belanghebbendes in die Malawi Meer Nasionale Park doeltreffend betrokke is in die bestuur van dié beskermde gebied. Om dit te bereik, het die navorsing die belanghebbendes geïdentifiseer, sowel as hulle verhouding tot die park en hulle verhouding met mekaar. Verder is die huidige vlak van samewerking geëvalueer om vas te stel of dit voldoende is om gemeenskapsdeelname te verbeter in die volhoubare bestuur van die park. Die navorsing volg ʼn beskrywende-kwalitatiewe benadering omdat die navorser belanggestel het daarin om die breër persepsies van mense te ondersoek. Dit het die vorm aangeneem van ʼn gevallestudie om sodoende ʼn dieper begrip van die fenomeen te kry deur die deelnemers se oogpunt in hulle natuurlike omgewing te verstaan. ʼn Kritiese oorsig van verwante literatuur en veldwerk is uitgevoer waar data ingesamel is uit parkdokumente en van sewe verteenwoordigers van drie belangegroepe deur die gebruik van semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude in Engels en Chichewa (onderskeidelik amptelike en nasionale tale); asook deur die neem van notas. Die studie het vier bevindings opgelewer. Eerstens, die primêre belanghebbendes is die bestuursowerheid van die park, verblyfoperateurs en die inheemse bevolking (dorpsbewoners). Tweedens is daar gevind dat rolspelers ʼn spesiale verhouding het met die park aangesien dit die bron was van sakegeleenthede, inkomste, ʼn gevoel van bemagtiging, ontspanning en werk. Derdens, die rolspelers was nie tevrede met die vlak van verhoudings in die park nie, veral ten opsigte van die bestuursowerheid van die park. Dit is ʼn afwyking van wat verwag word in soverre daar vir ʼn lang ruk gedink is dat verhoudings in die park deur die inheemse bevolking bederf is, veral ten opsigte van verblyfoperateurs. In hierdie studie is daar egter gevind dat verhoudings tussen hierdie twee groepe rolspelers bevredigend is. Vierdens het die navorsing bevind dat hoewel konflik afgeneem het en dat rolspelers met mekaar skakel indien nodig, die algemene vlak van samewerking nie voldoen aan die gemeenskap se verwagtings nie. ʼn Positiewe punt is dat die bevindings wys dat die rolspelers gewillig is om ʼn verteenwoordigende liggaam te stig wat in ʼn beter posisie is om oor besluitneming te onderhandel en wat die vlak van samewerking en bestuur in die park kan verbeter. Vyf aanbevelings het gevolg oor hoe samewerking en die vaardighede van die belanghebbendes in die park verbeter kan word. Waarvan sommige sluit: die spoedige fasilitering van die registrasie van ʼn reeds bestaande oorkoepelende vereniging, en die formele herkenning van toergidse deur die regering. As hierdie kwessies krities beskou word, kan ʼn omgewing geskep word waarbinne belanghebbendes kan saamwerk as ʼn gemeenskap in die bestuur van die beskermde gebied, en dit is nodig vir die bewaring en volhoubaarheid van lewensonderhoud en die park se doelwitte.

published_or_final_version / Housing Management / Master / Master of Housing Management

For over a century, wildlife in Southern Africa has come under the exclusive management of states, which tends to centre on the exclusion of local communities from wildlife areas. In many cases, this approach has led to the hostility of wildlife management policies by excluded communities. This widespread dissatisfaction has caused a paradigm shift in conservation thinking towards a more community-based conservation (CBC) approach. A major assumption of this new approach is that providing socio-economic benefits on a sustainable basis to formerly excluded communities will result in conservation. Indeed, some advocates of this management regime have stressed community incorporation and inclusion as the only path to conservation. As a result, numerous CBC initiatives have been implemented throughout the African sub-region over the past ten years with varied success. As there is no alternative to the CBC concept that attempts to enhance all three elements, namely the economic, social and biological components, of the sustainable development premise in conservation areas, it is imperative to ensure that CBC initiatives are monitored and evaluated in order to determine what the recurring problems and challenges are in implementing and running such initiatives so as to achieve the three sustainable development goals. By establishing what these recurring challenges are during the implementation process, a broad framework of necessary principles, criteria, pre-requisites and co-requisites can be established to guide future CBC initiatives. The purpose of this study is to identify the successes, challenges and problems that have either enhanced or detracted from the socio-economic and biological elements of CBC initiatives during the implementation processes of different projects. Previous documented project examples from around the sub-region, as well as two case study examples of CBC initiatives in KwaZulu-Natal, namely the Mabaso Community Game Reserve and the Usuthu Gorge Community Conservation Area, are used in this thesis to best determine how to enhance the social and economic elements of the sustainable development premIse III order to achieve, in theory, the biological components necessary for a successful conservation strategy. The findings within this study, from the case study examples and secondary research, show that there are several recurring challenges and problems shared by initiators of CBC initiatives throughout the sub-continent. Issues include long project implementation periods due to government bureaucracy, planning procedures and the necessity to gain community support; debates over devolution of authority to local municipalities or tribal authorities; the risks of elite capture and/or the free rider concept whereby individuals do not change their hunting practices despite communal benefits accruing from wildlife conservation; community participation and benefit distribution; as well as the need to have clear communication channels between the community and the project implementers. The main conclusions drawn from this study emphasise several needs necessary for making CBC initiatives sustainable for the long term. Firstly, CBC initiatives need to conserve as well as create a variety of different ways for communities to earn a living and to minimise any disruption by CBC projects of pre-existing livelihood strategies carried out by local residents. Secondly, there needs to be a provision of outside assistance to facilitate local projects and to ensure the development of the necessary skills for local communities to eventually take on the initiatives themselves. Thirdly, clearly defined property rights, as well as conflict resolution mechanisms and the enforcement of any rules and regulations are further crucial criteria. Fourthly, it is important for communities to avoid exploitation and to maximise any benefits accruing from private investors utilising local community resources by developing favourable legal contracts. Fifthly, it was found that the inclusion of tribal structures in both the case study examples increased the trust and feeling of ownership by the respective communities. Finally, it was found that CBC projects require specific locations and the right criteria to be in place for their successful implementation. Not all communities or communal areas meet these criteria, which is why CBC should be seen more as an important and necessary supplement to conservation strategies as opposed to a holistic conservation policy tool. / Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of Natal, Durban, 2004.

The dissertation presents the results of a study of the role of decentralisation and community participation in natural resource management in Tanzania. It analyses whether the shift of central government power to decentralised government units and the participation of local communities at village level result in more effective and more sustainable management of natural resources, wildlife in particular. The study uses Songea District and the Selous Conservation Programme south of Tanzania as a case study. As the examination of the origins and meaning of community-based natural resource management and decentralisation and the analysis of international experiences show, both approaches have been adapted in a number of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The government of Tanzania, with the support of a wide range of donors, is implementing an ambitious Local Government Reform Programme. The Selous Conservation Programme, jointly administered by the Tanzania Wildlife Division and GTZ, is promoting community-based conservation in villages bordering the Selous Game Reserve. The new Wildlife Policy, 1998, aims at the country-wide implementation of community-based conservation. Linkages between local government reform and improved environmental management are weak from insitutional, legal and technical points of view. On the other hand, the country has a policy environment that is highly supportive to decentralised environmental management and there is potential for improvement at both local and national levels. Songea District Council has defined the sustainable management of natural resources and the environment as one of its development priorities. Concerning the implementation of the Local Government Reform Programme, the district faces some problems and difficulties. Lack of human capacity and insufficient financial resources constrain the decentralisation process. Until now, up to about 50 villages bordering the game reserve have established their Wildlife Management Areas utilising their hunting quota. Due to insufficient and overdue legislation, the communities cannot fully make use and benefit from their wildlife resource. If remained uncorrected in the near future, the sustainability of community-based conservation programmes is threatened. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-Univeristy of Natal, Durban, 2001.

Colonial conservation emerged as colonial conservationists perceived the threat of deforestation, climatic change and famine. The sense that there were limits to nature's capacity to meet human demands, led to colonial conservationism which portrayed nature as separated from human life. Protected areas (PA's), both forest and game reserves, were created that excluded local people in terms of both access and management. In South Africa the National Forests Act 84 of 1998 has created new conditions in which there is a greater opportunity for communities to benefit from indigenous forests, which apart from their other uses are a valuable resource from the point of view of ecotourism. This study thus seeks to assess moves from exclusivist to community based forms of environmental decision-making (EDM) at Dlinza Forest Nature Reserve. This study provides an example of an ecotourism project started during the democratic period in South Africa and at the height of the global move to community conservation. First however it traces the management history of the forest in order to assess change in the management style over time. The study investigates rural people's attitudes towards the forest and it was found that although the forest was preserved for many years, the rural people still feel much attached to it as a result of the beliefs they have about it. The study contrasts different visions of the forest in terms of competing use and non-use values, and demonstrates that each group exercised its will and attempted to display "ownership" of the forest through a number of activities undertaken at the forest. An analysis of the public participation followed in terms of the ecotourism project was undertaken to determine the extent to which the rural community was involved. Theoretical models of environmental decision-making were applied in order to identify the mode of decisionmaking used historically and in the present. The results of the study show that poor rural people are still marginalized in EDM despite the new philosophies of PA management and the democratising shifts taking place in the country. Resistance to the policies and regulations of the reserve has been observed and this may lead to severe degradation of the resources that the reserve is meant to protect. The study thus recommends strengthening locally based EDM via partnerships as partnerships do not only provide relief for the consequences of conflict, they also strive for a win-win situation. The study concluded that greater involvement of the rural community requires a change in the mindset of conservation authorities, in particular with regard to the issue of representivity in EDM. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2004.

In southern Zululand in the province of KwaZulu-Natal within the iNkandla Magisterial District, a rural area, lies the indigenous iNkandla forest. This is the last remaining rare relict type of indigenous high wet rain forest in Southern Africa. This forest is of great importance not only for its unique biodiversity, its perennial source of water, but also as a resource base for the Cube people. This remote community lives mostly a traditional Zulu lifestyle in an area devoid of basic infrastructure, municipal services or economic activity. The Cube people are reliant on the forest resources for some of their daily basic material needs. This dissertation is an examination of the relationship between the Cube people and the iNkandla forest over time. The study investigates the ecology and biodiversity of the iNkandla forest. It also describes the Cube people's lifestyle, history and the continuous utilisation of the forest resources. The core focus of the study is that the iNkandla forest is not only an integral part of the Cube people's lives, but also has a rich cultural history. The research findings show that the daily activities of the Cube are impacting heavily on the forest resources. In order to minimise negative environmental impacts, sustainable utilisation of these resources needs to be established. This can enhance the relationship between the Cube people and the forest. The people's view of the forest and its change with time is investigated. The goods and services this forest provides to meet people's basic material needs portrays the relationship between the people and the forest. To sustain this relationship a model that illustrates a process that can be established and implemented effectively is recommended. This process will empower the Cube people to make constructive and effective choices and decisions. It will also inform the people of the sustainable ways of utilising the forest resources and enhance their relationship with the natural resources. The aim is to promote future developments that the Cube people are likely to see in future. This will inform their understanding of sustainable utilisation of the forest resources for future generations. Empowered people will recognise social principles for appropriate interactions with nature. The final part in this study revisits the theory of environmental history. It outlines briefly the manner in which the environmental history theory has been applied. It also explains the reason why the principles of environmental history have been adopted for this study. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002

There is growing realisation world wide that the attainment of environmental sustainability is contingent upon reinstatement of community authority over management of natural resources. In acknowledgement of this imperative the government of Mozambique has formulated policies and enacted legislation to promote Community-Based Natural Resource Management. The research reported here considers the prospects for achieving CBNRM in a fishery located in a remote part of the country on the border between Mozambique and Tanzania. The central hypothesis addressed is that the fishery in historical terms was operated under a common property regime and that, under a number of forces , this has changed to an open access regime. The challenge facing government is to return the fishery to a common property regime. A conceptual framework which illustrates transformation of the fishery was developed. This was used to structure the research. Central question posed includes: what evidence is there that the fishery may have operated as common property system? what evidence is there that it now operates as an open access system? • what forces promoted such change, if indeed change has occurred? The findings are that the fishery has changed and now has the characteristics of the prospects for a return to CBNRM. Three issues are considered: who is the community? • what are the resources? and what are the management issues? It is concluded that definition of the 'community' is difficult because of historical precedents of access and use. The resource is shown to be complex including fish, water, land and plants; it also varies in tenure and space. Quite different rights of tenure issues accompany different resources. And management is complicated by international issues and apparent weaknesses in organisational structures, legislation and resources (human and financial). Evidence indicates that the people involved in the fishery are concerned about the state of the fishery and the lack of controls. They express a need for CBNRM. This study exposes the very complex nature of the fishery and suggests that failure to appreciate and understand this complexity encourages simplistic approaches to introduction of CBNRM. These are likely to fail. It is recommended that in light of the complexity elucidated by this research, the government should engage a strategic planning process with the intention of designing and implementing a process for introducing CBNRM which is constructed in the context of what is a very complex system. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Thesis (MScConsEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa promotes participatory, cooperative governance and environmental conservation. This constitutional directive is enhanced into the National Environmental Management Act and other conservation laws. These legal requirements for active community participation in natural resources management, including benefit sharing are sufficiently captured in the SANParks’ policy and strategy for the management of national parks.

Since 1998, the communities of Combomune in Southern Mozambique have participated in a project intended to improve the quality of their lives, while ensuring the natural resources they depend on are well managed and sustainably used. The approach employed is Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). CBNRM is the resource conservation and management approach which has emerged as one of the models to involve local communities, previously excluded from conservation and management of natural resources and rural development programs. This model promotes community participation, responsibilities and benefit sharing among stakeholders involved in natural resource management programs. A case study was conducted to assess the impacts of the Combomune CBNRM project on household livelihoods and on the environment. The Combomune CBNRM project is meant to improve the household livelihoods of the Madliwa, Hochane and Chaves communities involved in the management of indigenous forest resources. The involved communities derive direct and indirect benefits from the CBNRM project. These benefits have impacts on household livelihoods and on the environment. The most noted benefits are social and economic changes. These changes have positively affected the living conditions of the involved communities. Further, the study revealed the Combomune CBNRM project charcoal production was the only activity generating monetary income to individual and to community development funds. Monetary income was invested in the improvement of homesteads, the purchase of domestic animals and the development of infrastructure with a high social impact. Water supply, education, health care and household homestead improvements were the major project achievements. The project encouraged environmental friendly practices such as sustainably agricultural activities and a fire management program. Local residents were also encouraged to plant trees on bare soil to protect it from being eroded. The study has not deeply explored the CBNRM project impacts, therefore more case studies are recommended to further explain effective CBNRM project contributions to household livelihoods, so it may be reasonably promulgated as a strategy not only devoted to involve local communities or merely for resource conservation, but as the approach which improves livelihoods of the rural poor. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

This paper presents a case study from Ngamiland, northern Botswana where community~ based natural resource management (CBNRM), through a joint venture agreement (NA) between a Community~based Organisation (CBO) and the private sector for nonconsumptive tourism has been implemented with the objective of contributing to localised poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification through employment and CBO fee revenue. The economic contribution of these benefits is considered with respect to commonly accepted norms and standards within the development ideology of sustainable development and its global measurements; therefore, a brief background of the concepts of poverty, livelihood and ecotourism is presented to provide context for the evaluation of CBNRM as a preferred land~use in Botswana. An evaluation of the significance of wage employment revenue and consequent remittances in the specific case study is intended to contribute to existing studies which have primarily emphasised the contribution of CBO fee revenue only to households. It is concluded that wage employment revenue makes a significant contribution at a household level to localised poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification compared to the insignificant contribution ofCBO fee revenue. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.