Mantle xenoliths have been used to interpret the magnetic characteristics of the lithospheric mantle because their rapid rate of ascent to the surface does not allow enough time for alteration. Studies of mantle xenoliths have suggested that magnetite in the mantle contributes to long wave length magnetic anomalies over areas of suppressed geothermal gradients (cratons, forearcs). Magnetite will only form in oxidizing conditions. This leads to a debate if mantle xenoliths become altered through oxidation to form magnetite in the mantle before ascent, during ascent (decompression), or after ascent at the surface. Natural and experimental occurrences of magnetite forming as inclusions or dislocations in fosterite from Fe-impurities suggest that oxidation of olivine is a mechanism for magnetite formation in the mantle. To test this, high olivine samples were placed into a furnace at 600C and 900C in free air at 1bar of pressure, removing samples at different time increments ranging from 0.2 to 625 hours. These temperatures were used because they represent mantle like temperatures in oxidizing conditions. After oxidation, samples from the 900C experiment show evidence for magnetite/hematite formation after only 0.2 hours and the amount of Fe-oxide formation increases with time. Samples from the 600C experiment show significant alteration and Fe-oxide formation after 125 hours. These results suggest that it is possible for magnetite to form from the Fe in the fayalite component of fosterite in the mantle from oxidizing event such as metasomatism.

Les processus de fusion ont joué un rôle clé dans l'évolution de la Terre. Au cours des premiers stades de la formation de la Terre, de grandes quantités de chaleur ont été libérées par(i) l'énergie gravitationnelle lors de la ségrégation noyau-manteau, (ii) la désintégration radioactive et (iii) les collisions entre corps orbitant autour du Soleil (en incluant l'impact géant qui a formé la Lune). Tous ces évènements ont conduit à la fusion du manteau et à des épisodes d'océan magmatique. Ensuite, les processus complexes de cristallisation du manteau ont conduit à la ségrégation chimique entre les différents réservoirs terrestres. Ces phénomènes ont été contrôlés par les propriétés de fusion des matériaux qui constituent le manteau.La fusion partielle se produit encore aujourd'hui dans les différentes régions du manteau. Comme preuves, des zones de vitesses sismiques faibles (LVZ) ont été rapportées dans le manteau supérieur, pour des profondeurs allant de 80 jusqu'à 410 km, grâce à différentes études sismologiques et magnétotelluriques. La diminution de vitesse des ondes sismiques est compatible avec la fusion partielle du manteau. Toutefois, cette question reste la source de vifs débats. Les études expérimentales portant sur la fusion des matériaux du manteau montrent en effet que la température actuelle du manteau est insuffisante pour provoquer la fusion du manteau péridotitique (ou pyrolitique) dans le manteau supérieur. La fusion peut seulement se produire dans certaines conditions, à savoir (i) en présence d'une quantité importante d'éléments volatils, tels que l'eau ou le CO2, car ces éléments diminuent significativement la température de fusion, ou (ii) pour des changements importants de composition chimique, par exemple pour de la croûte océanique subduite dans le manteau.Dans une première partie de cette étude, nous avons effectué des expériences de fusion sur un verre homogène, de composition chondritique, comme analogue du manteau de la Terre primitive après la ségrégation du noyau. Nous avons effectué des études in situ de diffraction de rayons X et de spectroscopie d'impédance pour détecter les premiers stades de fusion. À l'aide d'une presse à multi-enclumes, nous avons reproduit des pressions jusqu'à 25 GPa en vue de déterminer la température de solidus du manteau supérieur primitif. Nos résultats suggèrent que les études précédentes qui utilisaient la méthode de la trempe ont surestimé le solidus d'environ 250 K. Les implications sont multiples. Tout d'abord, cela suggère que la fusion partielle pourrait avoir lieu plus facilement dans le manteau actuel qu'on ne le pensait initialement, en particulier lorsque des éléments volatils, tels que H, sont présents. Nous avons calculé l'effet de l'eau sur la température de solidus en fonction de la teneur en eau, en utilisant la relation cryoscopique. Nos résultats montrent que 500-600 ppm d'eau sont suffisantes pour abaisser la température de solidus jusqu'à la température actuelle du manteau. La présence d'eau dans le manteau pourrait donc expliquer les LVZ observées sismiquement.Une autre implication majeure concerne l'état du manteau supérieur au cours de l'Archéen. Des températures mantelliques 200 à 300 K plus élevées qu'aujourd'hui, comme le suggère la composition d'anciens basaltes et de komatiites, induiraient la fusion partielle à des profondeurs d’environ 200 à 400 km. Ainsi, une couche de matériau partiellement fondu pourrait avoir persisté pendant de longues périodes géologiques au milieu du manteau supérieur. Cette couche aurait entraîné le découplage dynamique entre les parties supérieure et inférieure du manteau, pour éventuellement inhiber la convection globale du manteau. Ensuite,avec le refroidissement séculaire, la disparition de cette zone partiellement fondue aurait pu induire, il y a environ 2.5 milliards d'années, une convection globale et la tectonique des plaques telle que nous l'observons aujourd'hui. (...) / Melting processes play a key role in the Earth’s evolution. In the early stages of theEarth's formation, large amounts of heat were released from (i) gravitational energy from coremantlesegregation, (ii) radiogenic decay and (iii) collisions with large-scale impactors (suchas the Moon-forming impact). This led to extensive mantle melting with eventual formation ofa magma ocean. Then, chemical segregation between the different terrestrial reservoirs resultedfrom the complex processes of mantle crystallization. These mechanisms were primarilycontrolled by thermal evolution of partially molten mantle. Partial melting however may stilloccurs today in different mantle regions. Evidences of low velocities zones (LVZ) in the uppermantle have been reported by different seismological and magneto-telluric studies, at a depthranging from 80 km down to the 410 km seismic discontinuity. The reduction in seismic wavevelocities reported is also consistent with the occurrence of partial melting. However, thismatter remains the source of a vivid debate.The experimental studies addressing melting of mantle materials show that the presentdaytemperature is not sufficient to induce melting of the bulk peridotitic or pyrolitic mantle,at all depths throughout upper mantle, transition zone and lower mantle. Melting can still arisein certain conditions, i.e. (i) in presence of significant amounts of volatile elements, such aswater or CO2, because it can decrease the melting temperature of silicate rocks by hundreds ofdegrees or (ii) for significant compositional changes, e.g. when the oceanic crust is subductedin the mantle.In this study, we performed melting experiment on a homogeneous glass withchondritic composition, a proxy for the primitive Earth’s mantle after core segregation. Weperformed in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction and in situ impedance spectroscopymeasurements to detect the onset of melting during the experiments in a multi anvil apparatus,at pressures up to 25 GPa, in order to determine the solidus temperature of the primitive uppermantle. Our results show that previous studies overestimated the solidus by approximately 250K. The implication for a lower solidus are manifold. Firstly, partial melting could take place inthe mantle today at lower temperatures than previously believed, especially when volatileelements such as H are present. The variation of the solidus temperature as a function of watercontent was therefore calculated using the cryoscopic relation reported in previous studies. Ourresults show that 500-600 ppm of water are required to depress the solidus temperature enoughto cross the mantle geotherm at depths in which LVL are observed, which is compatible withthe reported maximum water storage capability of the upper mantle.Another major implication concerns the early state of the upper mantle. Mantletemperatures 200-300 K higher than today, as suggested from the composition of ancient nonarcbasalts and komatiites, would induce partial melting at depths from ~200 to ~400 km. Thus,a shell of partially molten material could have persisted in the upper mantle for long geologicaltimes. Such weak layer could have decoupled the convection in upper and lower part of themantle, possibly disabling the establishment of modern tectonic during the Archean. Then,upon secular mantle cooling, the final mantle crystallization at mid upper-mantle depths wouldhave drastically modified the mantle dynamics, inducing global mantle convection.In this work, the melting properties of the basaltic crust subducted in the lower mantleis also presented. Subduction of the oceanic lithosphere is thought to be a major responsiblefor mantle heterogeneities. At shallow depths, slabs undergo dehydration, which induces partialmelting of the mantle wedge and arc magmatism. (...)

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is characterized by the presence of the t(11 ;14)(g13 ;g32) translocation which results in cyclin Dl over-expression. MCL is one of the most difficult lymphoproliferative disorders to manage with a median survival rate of 43 months from diagnosis. The poor prognosis associated with MCL is due in large part to its late classification as a separate clinical entity leading to a dearth in available pre-clinical models. The specific objectives of the research described in this thesis were (1) to establish MCL preclinical models of disease and (2) to evaluate deregulated cell signaling pathways in MCL that can impact treatment response. Pre-clinical models of MCL were established from pre-existing cell lines containing the t(11 ;14)(g13 ;g32). These cell lines were previously misclassified because they were developed prior to the classification of MCL as a distinct lymphoma subtype. With the establishment of MCL models, deregulated cell signaling pathways in MCL and response to different treatment strategies were investigated. These included an investigation of the cell signaling pathways activated in bcl-2 over-expressing MCL cells that were treated with oblimersen; a molecular gene silencing strategy that effectively suppresses bcl-2 in vitro and in vivo. Silencing bcl-2 provided insight into which pathways were influenced by bcl-2 over-expression in MCL. More specifically loss of cyclin D1, NF-KB, p53, bax and p27 were observed following bcl-2 silencing. Additional studies investigated how abnormal expression of CD40/CD40L and Fas/FasL along with bcl-2 family members contributes to B cell clonal expansion and influences Rituximab-mediated cell death in MCL models. Rituximab is a chimeric monoclonal antibody targeted against B cells and both Rituximab-sensitive and insensitive MCL models were defined. An abnormally high expression of bcl-2, bcl-x L, mcl-1, CD40/CD40L and Fas were observed in all MCL cells, as well as high levels of soluble FasL, capable of blocking Fas-mediated apoptosis. These deregulated pathways were associated with response to Rituximab treatment in a sensitive MCL model. These studies demonstrated some of the key pathways associated with treatment response in MCL, and the establishment of well characterized MCL models enables us to continue to explore new treatment strategies currently being studied in other lymphomas. / Medicine, Faculty of / Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Department of / Graduate

No description available.

The oxidation state, reflected in the oxygen fugacity (fO2), of the lithospheric mantle is both laterally and vertically heterogeneous. Depth-fO2 profiles from kimberlite-borne peridotitic mantle xenoliths from the Bultfontein kimberlite, Kimberley, South Africa and the A154-N and A154-S kimberlites of the Diavik Mine, NWT, Canada were constructed by measuring ferric iron concentrations in garnets using the flank method. These data demonstrate that mantle metasomatic re-enrichment processes had a significant effect on fO2. In the garnet stability field, the Kaapvaal lithospheric mantle becomes progressively more reducing with increasing depth from Δlog fO2 (FMQ) of -2 at 110 km to -4 at 210 km. The lithospheric mantle beneath Diavik is vertically layered with respect to its bulk and trace-element composition. The shallow ‘ultradepleted’ layer is oxidized, to the point that carbonate rather than graphite is the anticipated carbon host. The deeper layer is more fertile and has fO2 conditions extending down to Δlog fO2 (FMQ) -3.8. Deviations from predicted depth-fO2 trends in both xenolith localities result from metasomatic re-enrichment caused by transient fluids and melts. Diamond formation in the Kaapvaal lithospheric mantle may have occurred through the infiltration of reduced fluids into relatively more oxidized mantle. Trace-element concentrations in garnets preserve evidence of two distinct melt metasomatic enrichment events. One was a craton-wide event that is commonly observed in garnet peridotite xenoliths and xenocrysts worldwide; the other was melt infiltration event, preserved as MARID xenoliths, related to the eruption of the Group 2 kimberlites in the western portion of the Kaapvaal craton. The effect of the former melt metasomatism on fO2 is unclear ambiguous whereas the MARID event was clearly oxidizing. Diavik xenoliths preserve evidence for events similar to the fluid and ‘common’ melt metasomatism seen in the Bultfontein samples. Fluid metasomatism affected the entire depth range of xenoliths sampled from Diavik and was oxidizing. A stage of melt metasomatism affected only the deeper (>140 km) portion of the lithospheric mantle and had an overall reducing effect. The observation of sharp-edged octahedral diamonds in microxenoliths affected by the fluid metasomatic event may indicate that this was a major diamond-forming event in the mantle beneath Diavik.

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The uniform stretching model successfully accounts for the general features of many extensional sedimentary basins. However, the amount of extension measured across normal faults in the upper crust is often thought to be significantly less than that calculated from subsidence analysis and crustal thinning. At present, more complicated models, which incorporate two-layer stretching, multiple stretching phases and flexural rigidity, are used to explain this extension discrepancy. The principal aim of this dissertation is to show that the extension discrepancy can be resolved in the northern North Sea without abandoning the uniform stretching model. Other observations are also explained by minor changes to the model. Basin evolution is addressed both on a small and on a large scale. A kinematic model for hanging wall deformation, which is assumed to occur by arbitrarily inclined simple shear and by differential compaction, is proposed. Fault geometries can be calculated from sedimentary horizons within hanging walls using an inversion scheme based on this model. Results suggest that hanging wall shear is inclined towards the main fault. This implies that the amount of extension across a fault is considerably greater than the apparent horizontal displacement. Syn-rift footwall uplift is explained by combining the simple domino-style fault model with the uniform stretching model. The 'steer's head' cross-sectional geometry of sedimentary basins is usually explained either by fluctuations in sea-level or by increasing flexural rigidity of the continental lithosphere during post-rift cooling. Here, a two-layer stretching model is proposed, where the lithospheric mantle is stretched over a fractionally wider region than is the crust. This accounts for the observed extent of post-rift stratigraphic onlap in the North Sea and does not alter conclusions concerning the extension discrepancy. The geometrical and thermal consequences of lithospheric simple shear are investigated using a numerical model. Results predict that, as for the uniform stretching model, crustal thinning is symmetrical about the basin. Maximum thinning is also coincident with maximum subsidence. However, the magnitude of post-rift subsidence varies across the basin, allowing the uniform stretching model and the lithospheric simple shear model to be distinguished. The different models described here have been applied to regional seismic reflection profiles and well-log information from the northern North Sea. On the best constrained profile, the extension measured across normal faults agrees well with that calculated by subsidence analysis. The major observations are thus consistent with the predictions of the uniform stretching model.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Joint Program in Oceanography (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2001. / "September 2001." Vita. Page 223 blank. Includes bibliographical references.

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