The influence of seasonal influx of supraglacial meltwater on basal water pressures and consequent changes in ice surface velocity has been a focus of research spanning over three decades. With a need to better include glacial hydrology within models of ice sheet evolution, the ability to predict where and when meltwater reaches the subglacial system is paramount for understanding the dynamics of large Arctic ice masses. The response of ice velocities to melt production suggests efficient transmission of meltwater from the supraglacial to subglacial hydrologic systems, and it has been shown that build-ups of stored meltwater in supraglacial lakes can force crevasse penetration through hundreds of metres of ice. This thesis presents a new modelling routine for prediction of moulin formation and delivery of meltwater to the ice-bed interface. Temporal and spatial patterns of moulin formation and drainage of supraglacial lakes are presented, and quantitative controls on crevasse propagation are investigated through a series of sensitivity tests. _J .' . The model is applied to two glacial catchments: the Croker Bay catchment of the Devon Ice Cap in High Arctic Canada; and the Leverett glacier catchment of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Through model application to these sites, sensitivities to crevasse surface dimensions, ice tensile strength, ice fracture toughness and air temperatures are investigated. Model predictions of moulin formation and melt transfer are compared with field observations and remotely sensed data, including ice surface velocities, proglacial discharge, dynamic flow regimes, and visible surface features. The inclusion of spatially distributed points of meltwater delivery to the 'subglacial system is imperative to fully understand the behaviour of the subglacial drainage system. Furthermore, dynamic response to future climatic change and melt scenarios, and the evolution of ice masses, cannot be fully understood without first understanding the glacial hydrologic processes driving many of these changes.

Tidewater glaciers form a significant drainage catchment of glacierised areas, directly transporting meltwater from the terrestrial to the marine environment. Surface melt of glaciers in the Arctic is increasing in response to warmer atmospheric temperatures, whilst tidewater glaciers are also exposed to warmer ocean temperatures, stimulating submarine melt. Increased freshwater discharge not only freshens fjord waters, but also plays a key role in glacimarine sedimentary processes, transporting sediment to glacial fjords. Despite this, the temporal evolution of meltwater production, storage and release from tidewater glacier systems at seasonal and interannual time scales is poorly understood. This leaves large uncertainties in the predictions for future sea level rise, ocean circulation and the impacts on the marine ecosystem. This study focuses on Kronebreen, a tidewater glacier which flows into the head of Kongsfjorden, north west Svalbard. Surface melt produces freshwater runoff, which is discharged from the grounding line as a buoyant, sediment laden plume, which spreads laterally across the surface water. This supraglacial melt is the dominant freshwater source, contributing an order of magnitude more freshwater to Kongsfjorden, than direct submarine melting of the ice face. Calibration of MODIS band 1 satellite imagery with in situ measurements of Total Suspended Solids and spectral reflectance, provides a method to quantify meltwater and sediment discharge. Plume extent has been determined for each cloud free day, from June to September, 2002 - 2013. Analysis of plume extent with atmospheric temperature and modeled surface runoff, gives a source to sea insight to meltwater production, storage and discharge. The extent of the plume changes in response to meltwater; larger plumes form when discharge increases. These results reveal that meltwater discharge into Kongsfjorden lags atmospheric temperature, the primary driver of meltwater production, by over a week during June and July. This is reduced to only 1 - 2 days in August and September, indicating a decline in meltwater storage as the ablation season progresses, and the development of more efficient glacial drainage. Sediment plumes respond to meltwater production, making them a valuable tool for quantifying meltwater discharge from a tidewater glacier. Insights to glacier hydrology can also be obtained when surface processes are also considered. This furthers the understanding of tidewater glacier hydrology, which is valuable for improving the accuracy of sea level rise predictions.

In order to understand and predict the geochemical conditions in Antarctic meltwater ponds during winter, the geochemical extremes in Bratina Island meltwater ponds over a seasonal cycle were determined and compositional variation related to key physical, chemical and biological processes. A high resolution record of vertical temperature gradients in Skua Pond during freezing, winter and thaw, highlighted a significant seasonal temperature variation (10.3˚C to -41.8˚C) driven by air temperatures and the release of latent heat of fusion. A conceptual model of freeze-thaw involved heterogeneous melting, and explained how the presence of an ice plug near the base of the pond supports the strong chemical stratification observed, which can persist throughout summer. The geochemistry of Bratina Island meltwater ponds was shown to be catchment specific with correlation between geochemical parameters within ponds, but not between ponds. Basal brines that develop during freezing were nearer in composition to the brines preserved during summer, than to those present immediately post-melting. This is due to mineral precipitation during winter removing selected dissolved ions. Therefore winter brine predictions should be based on mid-late summer conditions, and allow for existing geochemical stratification. Nutrient concentrations were vertically stratified, by the same physical processes controlling major ion concentrations. However, the relatively low nutrient concentrations meant that biological processes exerted little influence over winter brine geochemistry. FREZCHEM62 modeled winter brine compositions were consistent with those of brines present during progressive freezing. Predicted mineral precipitation was also consistent with the presence of halite (NaCl), mirabilite (Na₂SO₄.10H₂O), thenardite (Na₂SO₄), magnesite (MgCO₃), gypsum (CaSO₄), sodium carbonate (NaCO₃) and calcite (CaCO₃) in pond sediments. FREZCHEM62 can therefore be used with confidence to predict winter conditions, as long as a reliable initial bulk pond water composition is calculated, and limitations, such as the over-prediction of carbonate mineral formation, are borne in mind.

Glaciers and ice sheets covered extensive areas in the Northern Hemisphere during the last glacial period. Subsequently to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), they retreated rapidly and, except for Greenland and some other ice caps and glaciers, they vanished after the last glacial termination. This thesis examines the dynamics of deglacial environments by analysing the glacial geomorphological record with focus on the landforms created by glacial meltwater. The aims are (i) to evaluate the data available for mapping glacial meltwater features at the regional scale, and (ii) to demonstrate the potential of such features for regional ice retreat reconstructions in high-relief landscapes. Meltwater landforms such as ice-marginal meltwater channels, eskers, deltas and fossil glacial lake shorelines are used to infer former ice surface slope directions and successive positions of retreating ice margins. Evaluated high-resolution satellite imagery and digital elevation models reveal their potential to replace aerial photographs as the primary data for mapping glacial meltwater landforms. Following a methods study, reconstructions of the deglacial dynamics are carried out for central Transbaikalia, Siberia, Russia, and for the Cordilleran Ice Sheet (CIS) in central British Columbia, Canada, using regional geomorphological mapping surveys. Mapped glacial landforms in central Transbaikalia show evidence of a significant glaciation that possibly extended beyond the high mountain areas. Large glacial lakes were formed as advancing glaciers blocked rivers, and of these, Glacial Lake Vitim was the most prominent. Deglacial dynamics of the CIS reveals that the ice divide shifted to the Coast Mountains in north-central British Columbia and the eastern ice margin retreated towards the ice divide in late glacial time. This thesis demonstrates the potential to reconstruct ice retreat patterns and deglacial dynamics at regional scales by interpretation of the meltwater landform record. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 5: Submitted. Paper 6: Manuscript.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The outwash deposits of the Eel River paleo meltwater channel in DeKalb and Allen Counties, Indiana predominantly originated from the Erie Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, but do contain some sediment from the Saginaw Lobe. This determination helps clarify the ice dynamics and Last Glacial Maximum sediment depostional history in northeastern Indiana, which is complicated because of the interactions between the Erie and Saginaw Lobes. Outwash deposits were analyzed from IGS core SC0802 in the Eel River paleo meltwater channel, which intersects the previously identified Huntertown Formation. The core includes 29.2 m of deposits underlain by the hard glacial till of the Trafalgar formation. Mean grain size, sediment skewness, lithology, magnetic susceptibility, and quantitative X-ray diffraction were used to evaluate the provenance of the outwash deposits. Representative samples of Erie Lobe and Saginaw Lobe deposits were analyzed to develop end member provenance signatures. A weight of evidence approach was developed and revealed that deposits from 8.0-13.8 m are of mixed origin from the Erie and Saginaw Lobes, whereas the 0-8.0 and 13.8-29.2 m deposits are Erie Lobe in origin. Cluster analysis and discriminant function analysis supported the findings of this approach. These findings suggests that the Eel River paleo meltwater channel was formed as an outwash channel, and that the adjacent Huntertown Formation does not appear to have been directly deposited by the Saginaw Lobe. The sediments of Saginaw origin from ~8-14 m in the Eel River paleo meltwater channel were likely transported from an upgradient source. The sediments from this zone have a larger mean grain size indicating deposition occurred during higher meltwater discharge, such as the release of meltwater from the drainage of proglacial or subglacial lake(s) associated with the disintegration of the Saginaw Lobe, thus resulting in the mixing of Saginaw Lobe deposits with Erie Lobe deposits. However, the majority of the sediment in the Eel River paleo channel near SC0802 is Erie Lobe in origin. Based on the provenance and depositional sequence at SC0802, the Saginaw Lobe disintegrated prior to the Erie Lobe retreat from the Wabash moraine around 16-17 cal ka.

No description available.

In 1977, this study was carried out in a small drainage basin (33 km2) near Resolute (74°55'N, 94°50'W), Northwest Territories (1) to examine the manner in which meltwater runoff carves channels in the valley snowpack before the channels become stablised on their clastic beds, and (2) to assess the role played by valley snowpacks on fluvial processes. Major factors controlling channel development in the snowpack include the distribution and the characteristics of the snow, which in turn are related to the local topography and the prevailing directions of winter snowdrift. Based on this relationship, an attempt was made to predict the sequences of channel development in terms of several processes including ponding, tunnelling, lateral and vertical shifting, and stream capturing. Availability of water controls the rate of channel development sequences and hence the magnitude of fluvial processes over a flow season. In the case of substantial runoff, the rate of snowpack depletion is rapid. However, since the bulk of annual water discharge occurs while the snow is interposed between the running water and the bed material, little geomorphic work is performed during the early part of the flow season. For four selected sites, calculations suggest a protective effect of the snow in reducing the potential bed material transport. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Shrinking alpine glaciers alter the geochemistry of sensitive mountain streams by exposing reactive freshly-weathered bedrock and releasing decades of atmospherically-deposited trace elements from glacier ice. Changes in the timing and quantity of glacial melt also affect discharge and temperature of alpine streams. To investigate the effects of glacier ice melt on the geochemistry and hydrology of proglacial streams in the arid Intermountain West, we sampled supraglacial meltwaters and proglacial streams in the Dinwoody Creek watershed in the Wind River Range, Wyoming during late summer 2015, when the contributions of glacier meltwater were highest. Supraglacial meltwater was enriched in 8 trace elements (Cd, Co, Cu, MeHg, Mn, Pb, THg, Zn) relative to proglacial meltwaters. Concentrations of major ions (Mg2+, K+, Na+, Ca2+, SO42-) and the remaining 30+ analyzed trace elements were enriched in proglacial streams relative to supraglacial meltwater. To evaluate the diurnal effects of glacial meltwater on the chemistry and hydrology of proglacial streams, we collected hourly water samples of Dinwoody Creek and deployed loggers to monitor water depth, temperature, and specific conductance (SPC) at 15-min intervals over a 1-week period. The influx of glacial meltwater between 10:00 and 20:00 diluted solute concentrations and affected the relative enrichment/depletion of highly soluble elements (major ions, alkaline earth elements), less than REEs. Stable isotopes of H and O (δD, δ18O) in Dinwoody Creek were more depleted during peak runoff (10:00 – 20:00) than base flow, reflecting contributions from isotopically depleted glacial meltwaters. Looping hysteresis patterns were observed between water depth versus DO, pH, temperature and SPC in glaciated streams. Hysteresis patterns were affected by changes in weather and varied depending on the type of stream (glaciated versus non-glaciated) and the distance to glacier toe. Combination of multiple hydrologic tracers (solute concentrations, high frequency logger data, stable isotopes) shows strong potential to improve estimates of glacial meltwater contributions to Dinwoody Creek. Our results suggest that elevated concentrations of heavy metals in glacier ice melt across the Intermountain West may negatively impact sensitive alpine streams.

This thesis aims to better understand the relationships between basal water pressure, friction, and sliding mechanisms at ice sheet scales. In particular, it develops a new subglacial hydrology model (Hydro) to explicitly predict water pressures in response to basal water production and water injection from the surface. Recent research suggests that the Greenland ice sheet (gis) is losing a substantial volume of ice through dynamic thinning. This process must be modelled to accurately assess the contribution of the gis to sea-level rise in future warming scenarios. A key control on dynamic thinning is the presence of water at the ice-bed interface; Zwally et al. (2002) highlight the importance of supraglacial lakes' impact on basal ice dynamics, a process now con rmed by Das et al. (2008) and Shepherd et al. (2009). Many studies focus on the effects of surface meltwater reaching the bed of the gis but the underlying processes are often ignored. Geothermal, strain, and frictional melting, which evolves with basal hydrology, provide the background basal pressure profile that surface meltwater perturbates. Without understanding how these heat terms affect the background profile it is difficult to define basal boundary conditions in models and therefore difficult to model the dynamic response of the gis to surface melting. Hydro tracks subglacial water pressures and the evolution of efficient drainage networks. Coupled with the existing 3D thermomechanical ice sheet model Glimmer, model outputs include effective pressure N and the efficient hydraulic area. Defining frictional heat flux and basal traction as functions of N allow the modelling of seasonal dynamic response to randomly draining supraglacial lakes. Key results are that frictional heat flux, as a function of N, caps potential runaway feedback mechanisms and that water converges in topographic troughs under Greenland's outlet glaciers. This leads to a background profile with low N under outlet glaciers. Therefore, outlet glaciers show a muted dynamic speedup to the seasonal surface signal reaching the bed. Land-terminating ice does not tend to have subglacial troughs and so has higher background N and consequently a larger seasonal response. This, coupled with effects of ice rheology, can explain the hitherto puzzling lack of observed seasonal velocity change on Jakobshavn Isbræ and other outlet glaciers.

Continental-scale inventories of glaciers are available, but no analogous rock glacier inventories exist. We present the Portland State University Rock Glacier Inventory (n = 10,343) for the contiguous United States, then compare it to an existing inventory of contiguous United States glaciers (n = 853), identifying geographic and climatic factors affecting the spatial distributions observed. At least one rock glacier is identified in each of the 11 westernmost states, but nearly 90% are found in just five; Colorado (n = 3889), Idaho (n = 1723), Montana (n = 1780), Utah (n = 834), and Wyoming (n = 849). Glaciers are concentrated in relatively humid mountain ranges, while rock glaciers are concentrated in relatively arid mountain ranges. Mean glacier area (0.60 ± 0.073 km2) is significantly greater than mean rock glacier area (0.10 ± 0.002 km2), though total glacier area (507.70 km2) is lower than total rock glacier area (1008.91 km2). Glacier and rock glacier areas, as a percent of small watersheds containing them, are modeled using geographically weighted regression. Glacier percent area (R2 = 0.55) is best explained by elevation range and mean fall snowfall, while rock glacier percent area (R2 = 0.42) is best explained by mean spring dewpoint temperature and slope standard deviation. Finally, we compare riparian vegetation along meltwater streams draining glaciers and rock glaciers. Initial 500 m long meltwater stream reaches emanating from a total of 35 pairs of collocated glaciers and rock glaciers were delineated, allowing estimation of riparian vegetation cover and density. Rock glacier meltwater stream riparian vegetation cover (mean cover = 86.2% ± 9.3%) and density (mean NDVI = 0.30 ± 0.02) are significantly greater (p-value < 0.05) than glacier meltwater stream riparian vegetation cover (mean cover = 64.5% ± 10.9%) and density (mean NDVI = 0.13 ± 0.01). This study shows that while the spatial distributions of glaciers and rock glaciers are both generally influenced by a combination of geographic and climatic variables, the specific forcings and local magnitudes are distinct for each cryospheric feature type, and processes inherent to rock glacier cryospheric meltwater sourcing positively influence first-order meltwater stream vegetation patterns.