The Review of the Five Year Education Plan (1976-1980) carried out by the Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research (IASER,1979) presented thoroughly researched, factual information regarding the standard of education in Papua New Guinea. The Review stated that there had been a decline in standards of education. It claimed that "there [was] the greatest need for a more highly skilled and dedicated professional group of teachers" (IASER,1979:61) and that considerable dissatisfaction had been noted at community level because of the "reported evidence that many Grade 6 leavers [were] illiterate" (IASER,1979:24). Since English is the nationally prescribed language of instruction at all levels of education, the standard achieved in English is particularly important. It has been shown that the skills students have in the use of English "stand out as contributing most in overall academic prediction" (Ord,1971:8). It is also claimed that a psycholinguistic analysis of oral reading miscues following the taxonomy of Goodman (1968,1971,1977) enables the researcher to examine the subject's total language competence and that such an analysis can reveal the degree of bilingualism achieved by second language learners (Allen,1976). The purpose of this study was therefore, to examine the oral reading of a large sample of first-year students at Teachers' College in Papua New Guinea. It was hypothesised that a pattern of strengths and weaknesses would emerge from the study of oral reading miscues (Goodman and Burke,1971). It was further hypothesised that an examination of the actual problems that were revealed by an analysis of the miscues would provide evidence to be used as the basis for recommendations to be formulated regarding the teaching of Reading in the Community Schools of Papua New Guinea and also regarding remedial and developmental emphases that might prove beneficial to students in the Teachers' Colleges. On the basis of this research it would appear that students at College level do have "serious reading problems" (Price,1973: 15) and that they are unable to read text judged to be College level with understanding. Students seemed to have achieved a certain degree of oral fluency in reading which could be the result of their skill in using the grapho-phonic and syntactic cueing systems. However, this fluency was found to cloak a lack of understanding of content. There was evidence that students achieved a relatively low level of comprehension when the readings contained concepts that were familiar; however, when the concepts contained in the passage were unfamiliar, the scores for Comprehension were significantly lower. During the retelling of passages read orally, students gave evidence of a relatively low level of facility in English expression. It was judged to be doubtful that in the period of their training those students could acquire the command of oral English considered indispensible for their profession in an education system where the English language is the medium of instruction. The students tested were the products of the present national policy of education through English from Grade One. While changes regarding the optimum academic level of students to be accepted into Teachers' Colleges, necessary inservicing of College Staff, appropriate Courses in Educational Psychology and English Language Method have been recommended, these can only be seen as remedial. In order to effect the desired change at the Teachers' College Level it would seem necessary to introduce change at the level of the Community Schools in the language of initial literacy.

Literacy educators hold different beliefs about the best approaches to teach students how to read and about the reading process including a skills view of reading and learning to read versus a transactional, sociopsycholinguistic view of reading and learning to read (Weaver, 2002). Reading for understanding is an important skill to develop in students to promote overall success (Keene, 2008). When orally reading, readers occasionally say something differently than what is printed—which is called a miscue. Goodman, Martens, and Flurkey (2014) defined a miscue as “any response during oral reading that differs from what a listener would expect to hear” (p. 5). The purpose of this study was to teach a small group of fourth grade readers a process called Collaborative Retrospective Miscue Analysis, or CRMA (Costello, 1996), to help readers learn how to notice and analyze miscues during oral reading through small group collaborative discussions about their miscues and understanding during reading. In this CRMA study, the students’ teachers viewed video recorded student small group reading sessions to understand how students changed over the course of 14 weeks. A reading survey called the BIMOR, or Burke Interview Modified for Older Readers (Goodman, Watson, & Burke, 2005) was used before and after the study and student and teacher CRMA sessions were video-recorded to study what students thought about themselves as readers and keep track of changing views about reading. In addition, students orally read two different texts to determine if there were any changes in readers’ miscues over time through the use of the Miscue Analysis In-Depth Procedure Coding Form (Goodman et al., 2005). This analysis allowed a deeper understanding of the readers’ usage of the three cueing systems during reading including the syntactic (grammar) system; the semantic (meaning) system; and the graphophonic (letters and sounds) system (Goodman & Marek, 1996). As a result of the CRMA process, three themes emerged from the analysis of the data collected. Readers moved to a more meaning-based orientation to reading although the CRMA study students still employed the use of other less emphasized reading strategies such as sounding it out, using a dictionary, and asking for help. Students developed more self-efficacy as readers as they became more confident and aware of their reading process as they participated in the CRMA student sessions. Finally, teachers revalued readers through observing their students as readers with strengths, effectively using problem-solving strategies during reading, and by noticing, “what the reader’s smart brain does during the reading process” (Goodman, Martens, & Flurkey, 2014, p. 29). Implications for both classroom instruction and teacher professional learning are explored as useful applications of Collaborative Retrospective Miscue Analysis in schools and classrooms to help readers move to a more meaning-based orientation to reading and to help readers become more self-efficacious and aware of their own reading process, as well as revaluing readers.

This dissertation focuses on the analysis of simultaneous interpreting from Czech into the Czech Sign Language and on mistakes which occur during this process. The terminology the author uses to describe the mistakes is derived from the taxonomy of D. Cokely (1985). Cokely's five types of mistakes in interpreting to a sign language (omissions, additions, substitutions, intrusions and anomalies), including their subtypes were also identified in the analysed texts. The work is based on the analysis of mistakes in the interpreted text, which has confirmed the hypothesis of the thesis stating that the use of free interpreting by Czech Sign Language interpreters is only marginal. The interpreters did not reflect pragmatic aspects of dialogue in an appropriate way and they did not use unique language features of the sign language either. They also heavily relied on the Deaf recipients' knowledge of the majority language. In other parts of the work the author pays attention to other specificities of mistakes made during interpreting into the sign language. These are for example sign deformation, mouth movement during the production of a sign, use of a sign in a context etc. She also focuses on an undesirable "accent", the important elements of which are sign placement, the choice of the sign, rhythm,...