Multi-fold Time Domain Electromagnetics (TDEM) is a novel experimental approach that couples elements of traditional land-based TDEM survey designs to obtain a robust data set. This design inherently accommodates a broad range of possible Earth models through a rich combination of analysis opportunities making it ideally suited for reconnaissance. Kentland Farms, VA was chosen as the test site, for its ease of access and interesting geologic features such as river terraces and karstic landscape. Three independent methods of analyzing the 3-component data set each provided unique insights into the subsurface electrical structure through a complementary interpretation. Synthesis of log-normalized ∂tB_z pseudo-sections provided a first-order analysis of the lateral and vertical heterogeneities of the profile. A Zero-Crossing Moveout (ZCMO) analysis used a brute-force grid-search inversion to estimate the two-layer Earth model that best-fit the observed moveout times for a range of interface depths. By using the ZCMO result as an initial model, regularized 1D Occam inversions determined a 3-layer electrical structure consisting of a 3.5 m – 5 m thick resistive upper layer, over an 12.5 m – 15 m thick conductive layer, overlying a resistive half-space. From correlation of the inverse solutions with ZCMO derived conductivity models and prior resistivity information, the depth to the limestone bedrock was approximated to be 16 – 20 m. The delineation of the bedrock depth provided additional support for the fill-cut terrace formation model (Ward et al., 2005), as well as possible evidence of groundwater drainage on the 40 m terrace at Kentland Farm. / Master of Science

The South Portuguese Zone (SPZ), which host world-class massive sulphide deposits, forms the southern fold-and-thrust belt of the Iberian Variscan orogeny. This thesis focuses on seismic-reflection and seismic-refraction processing efforts on a subset of the IBERSEIS deep seismic-reflection data set aiming at resolving the SPZ upper crust in high resolution. A comparison of different crooked-line seismic-reflection imaging schemes showed that a processing sequence involving dip-moveout corrections, a common-midpoint projection, and poststack time migration of common-offset gathers provided the most coherent images considering the crooked acquisition geometry. Correlation with surface-geological data allows four units of different reflection character to be identified: the ~0–2 km deep Upper Carboniferous Flysch group, the highly reflective ~2–4 km thick and up to ~5 km deep Volcano-Sedimentary Complex (VSC) group, and two deep Paleozoic metasedimentary units, with the shallower Phyllite-Quartzite group exposed in an antiform. Prominent diffracted energy was enhanced using a modified Kirchhoff imaging routine. High reflectivity and distinct diffractions mark extensive dike bands at 6–12 km depth, possibly related to the intense hydrothermal activity that led to the formation of the ore-bearing VSC group. Source-generated noise obscures potential signals from depths shallower than ~500m depth on the seismic-reflection sections. P- and SV-wave first-arrival traveltimes were inverted for velocity models imaging the shallowest crust. Overall, the velocity models correlate well with surface-geological data marking high (>5.25 km/s) and uniform P-velocities for the Flysch unit in the southern SPZ. A prominent P-wave low-velocity body (~4.5 km/s) is resolved where the Phyllite-Quartzite unit forms the core of an antiform. P-velocities fluctuate the most in the northern SPZ with Flysch group units exhibiting high velocities (>5.25 km/s) and VSC group bodies showing intermediate velocities (~5 km/s). Low VP/VS-ratios (~1.8) computed for the southern profile part are interpreted as less deformed Flysch-group units, whereas high VP/VS-ratios (~1.9) indicate fractured units.

Le principale objectif de l'imagerie sismique pétrolière telle qu'elle est réalisée de nos jours est de fournir une image représentative des quelques premiers kilomètres du sous-sol. Cette image permettra la localisation des structures géologiques formant les réservoirs où sont piégées les ressources en hydrocarbures. Pour pouvoir caractériser ces réservoirs et permettre la production des hydrocarbures, le géophysicien utilise la migration-profondeur qui est un outil d'imagerie sismique qui sert à convertir des données-temps enregistrées lors des campagnes d'acquisition sismique en des images-profondeur qui seront exploitées par l'ingénieur-réservoir avec l'aide de l'interprète sismique et du géologue. Lors de la migration profondeur, les évènements sismiques (réflecteurs,…) sont replacés à leurs positions spatiales correctes. Une migration-profondeur pertinente requiert une évaluation précise modèle de vitesse. La précision du modèle de vitesse utilisé pour une migration est jugée au travers l'alignement horizontal des évènements présents sur les Common Image Gather (CIG). Les évènements non horizontaux (Residual Move Out) présents sur les CIG sont dus au ratio du modèle de vitesse de migration par la vitesse effective du milieu. L'analyse du Residual Move Out (RMO) a pour but d'évaluer ce ratio pour juger de la pertinence du modèle de vitesse et permettre sa mise à jour. Les CIG qui servent de données pour l'analyse du RMO sont solutions de problèmes inverses mal posés, et sont corrompues par du bruit. Une analyse de l'incertitude s'avère nécessaire pour améliorer l'évaluation des résultats obtenus. Le manque d'outils d'analyse de l'incertitude dans l'analyse du RMO en fait sa faiblesse. L'analyse et la quantification de l'incertitude pourrait aider à la prise de décisions qui auront des impacts socio-économiques importantes. Ce travail de thèse a pour but de contribuer à l'analyse et à la quantification de l'incertitude dans l'analyse des paramètres calculés pendant le traitement des données sismiques et particulièrement dans l'analyse du RMO. Pour atteindre ces objectifs plusieurs étapes ont été nécessaires. Elles sont entre autres :- L’appropriation des différents concepts géophysiques nécessaires à la compréhension du problème (organisation des données de sismique réflexion, outils mathématiques et méthodologiques utilisés);- Présentations des méthodes et outils pour l'analyse classique du RMO;- Interprétation statistique de l’analyse classique;- Proposition d’une approche stochastique;Cette approche stochastique consiste en un modèle statistique hiérarchique dont les paramètres sont :- la variance traduisant le niveau de bruit dans les données estimée par une méthode basée sur les ondelettes, - une fonction qui traduit la cohérence des amplitudes le long des évènements estimée par des méthodes de lissages de données,- le ratio qui est considéré comme une variable aléatoire et non comme un paramètre fixe inconnue comme c'est le cas dans l'approche classique de l'analyse du RMO. Il est estimé par des méthodes de simulations de Monte Carlo par Chaîne de Markov.L'approche proposée dans cette thèse permet d'obtenir autant de cartes de valeurs du paramètre qu'on le désire par le biais des quantiles. La méthodologie proposée est validée par l'application à des données synthétiques et à des données réelles. Une étude de sensibilité de l'estimation du paramètre a été réalisée. L'utilisation de l'incertitude de ce paramètre pour quantifier l'incertitude des positions spatiales des réflecteurs est présentée dans ce travail de thèse. / The main goal of the seismic imaging for oil exploration and production as it is done nowadays is to provide an image of the first kilometers of the subsurface to allow the localization and an accurate estimation of hydrocarbon resources. The reservoirs where these hydrocarbons are trapped are structures which have a more or less complex geology. To characterize these reservoirs and allow the production of hydrocarbons, the geophysicist uses the depth migration which is a seismic imaging tool which serves to convert time data recorded during seismic surveys into depth images which will be exploited by the reservoir engineer with the help of the seismic interpreter and the geologist. During the depth migration, seismic events (reflectors, diffractions, faults …) are moved to their correct locations in space. Relevant depth migration requires an accurate knowledge of vertical and horizontal seismic velocity variations (velocity model). Usually the so-called Common-Image-Gathers (CIGs) serve as a tool to verify correctness of the velocity model. Often the CIGs are computed in the surface offset (distance between shot point and receiver) domain and their flatness serve as criteria of the velocity model correctness. Residual moveout (RMO) of the events on CIGs due to the ratio of migration velocity model and effective velocity model indicates incorrectness of the velocity model and is used for the velocity model updating. The post-stacked images forming the CIGs which are used as data for the RMO analysis are the results of an inverse problem and are corrupt by noises. An uncertainty analysis is necessary to improve evaluation of the results. Dealing with the uncertainty is a major issue, which supposes to help in decisions that have important social and commercial implications. The goal of this thesis is to contribute to the uncertainty analysis and its quantification in the analysis of various parameters computed during the seismic processing and particularly in RMO analysis. To reach these goals several stages were necessary. We began by appropriating the various geophysical concepts necessary for the understanding of:- the organization of the seismic data ;- the various processing ;- the various mathematical and methodological tools which are used (chapters 2 and 3). In the chapter 4, we present different tools used for the conventional RMO analysis. In the fifth one, we give a statistical interpretation of the conventional RMO analysis and we propose a stochastic approach of this analysis. This approach consists in hierarchical statistical model where the parameters are: - the variance which express the noise level in the data ;- a functional parameter which express coherency of the amplitudes along events ; - the ratio which is assume to be a random variable and not an unknown fixed parameter as it is the case in conventional approach. The adjustment of data to the model done by using smoothing methods of data, combined with the using of the wavelets for the estimation of allow to compute the posterior distribution of given the data by the empirical Bayes methods. An estimation of the parameter is obtained by using Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulations of its posterior distribution. The various quantiles of these simulations provide different estimations of . The proposed methodology is validated in the sixth chapter by its application on synthetic data and real data. A sensitivity analysis of the estimation of the parameter was done. The using of the uncertainty of this parameter to quantify the uncertainty of the spatial positions of reflectors is presented in this thesis.