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Unbound granular materials (UGMs) used in the base and sub-base layers of flexible pavements play a significant role in the overall performance of the structure. Proper understanding and characterization of the deformation behaviour of UGMs in pavement structures are, therefore, vital for the design and maintenance of flexible pavements. In this study, the resilient deformation (RD) and the permanent deformation (PD) behaviour of UGMs were investigated for the better understanding and improved modelling of these deformation characteristics. The study is based on a series of repeated-load triaxial (RLT) tests carried out on several UGMs commonly used in pavement structures. Here, the influences of stress level and moisture content - two of the most significant factors affecting the deformation behaviour of UGMs - were analysed. The effects of the grain size distribution and the degree of compaction were also considered. The study on the RD behaviour indicated that the resilient stiffness (MR)of UGMs increases with the increased bulk stress level, which can be satisfactorily described by the k-θ model. Moisture was found to negatively impact the MR as long as the deformation was mostly resilient with a negligible amount of accumulated PD. Analysis of the influence of moisture on the parameters k1 and k2 of the k-θ model showed that k1 decreases with increased moisture and k2 is relatively insensitive to moisture. Based on these observations, a simple model was developed for the impact of moisture on MR. The performance of this model was comparable to an existing moisture dependent MR model. In contrast, it was further observed that at the later stages of the RLT tests, after a relatively large number of load applications, the MR increased with increased moisture up to the optimum moisture content. This occurred when the RD was accompanied by a significant amount of PD. Further investigation suggested that moisture aided the post-compaction (PC) and possible particle rearrangement that resulted in the increased PD and increased MR. In this case k1 decreased, whereas k2 increased, with increased moisture. The existing MR-moisture model did not work for this behaviour. This suggests that the effect of PC on MRshould be considered in modelling. However, although not explored in this study, it may be possible to simulate this effect of increase in MR with increased moisture due to PC using the proposed model if k2 is expressed as a function of moisture. The PD characteristics of UGMs were investigated based on the multistage (MS) RLT test. In contrast with the single stage (SS) RLT test, the MS RLT test accounts for the effect of stress history and enables a comprehensive study of the material behaviour under cyclic stresses of various magnitudes. Since the existing PD models cannot be directly applied for the MS loading procedure, a general formulation based on the time hardening concept was derived that can be used to extend the models for the MS loading conditions. Based on this formulation, some of the current models were calibrated and their performance in predicting the PD behaviour in MS RLT tests was compared. The investigation regarding the impact of moisture on PD showed that moisture significantly increases the accumulation of PD. Generally, materials with finer grading showed more sensitivity to moisture with regards to both PD and RD. To characterize the impact of moisture, moisture sensitivity of different grain size distributions and the impact of the degree of compaction on PD with reduced effort, a simple model was proposed. Unlike some of the well-performing existing models, this model can be calibrated using a single MS RLT test without requiring any separate static failure triaxial tests. This model was validated using the MS RLT test data with satisfactory results. The sensitivity of the parameters of this model was studied with respect to moisture content, degree of compaction and grain size distribution. Some reasonable trends for the sensitivity of the parameters to these influential factors were obtained, which suggests that these may be further developed to incorporate into the model. / <p>QC 20150325</p>

Bioethanol is an appealing alternative to petroleum-based liquid fuel due to drivers such as environmental regulations and government mandates. Second generation lignocellulosic feedstocks are abundant, but their resistance to hydrolysis continues to be problematic. Different pretreatments have been proposed to increase cellulose reactivity. Softwood pine autohydrolyzed at different severities was subjected to further treatment to increase fibre reactivity. Liquid hot water is most effective at removing barriers, with the highest increase in sugar yield after enzymatic hydrolysis. Alkaline (NaOH) is found to be the worst option compared to dilute acid and organosolv. In addition, higher chemical concentrations and longer treatment times do not guarantee higher enzymatic hydrolysis yield. Process modifications such as fiber washing and multistage enzymatic hydrolysis are observed to be effective at increasing yield. However, more research is required to bring the enzymatic hydrolysis yield to a level where commercialization is feasible.

Bioethanol is an appealing alternative to petroleum-based liquid fuel due to drivers such as environmental regulations and government mandates. Second generation lignocellulosic feedstocks are abundant, but their resistance to hydrolysis continues to be problematic. Different pretreatments have been proposed to increase cellulose reactivity. Softwood pine autohydrolyzed at different severities was subjected to further treatment to increase fibre reactivity. Liquid hot water is most effective at removing barriers, with the highest increase in sugar yield after enzymatic hydrolysis. Alkaline (NaOH) is found to be the worst option compared to dilute acid and organosolv. In addition, higher chemical concentrations and longer treatment times do not guarantee higher enzymatic hydrolysis yield. Process modifications such as fiber washing and multistage enzymatic hydrolysis are observed to be effective at increasing yield. However, more research is required to bring the enzymatic hydrolysis yield to a level where commercialization is feasible.

H παρούσα ερευνητική εργασία αφορά την εκτίμηση της απόδοσης πολυβάθμιων διασυνδεδεμένων δικτύων μεταγωγής. Για την εκτίμηση της απόδοσης αναπτύχθηκαν προσεγγιστικά αναλυτικά μοντέλα τα οποία και παρουσιάζονται στην εργασία αυτή. Πιο συγκεκριμένα: 1. Παρουσιάζεται μια πρωτότυπη ολοκληρωμένη μεθοδολογία εύρεσης της απόδοσης αυτό-δρομολογούμενων απλών πολυβάθμιων διασυνδεδεμένων δικτύων (πχ κλασσικά δίκτυα banyan) τα οποία συγκροτούνται από συμμετρικά στοιχειώδη συστήματα μεταγωγής (πχ 2x2 Switch Element). Το μοντέλο που δημιουργήθηκε βασίστηκε στην λειτουργία και την συμπεριφορά μιας τυχαίας μνήμης (ουράς) ενός στοιχειώδους συστήματος μεταγωγής. Βασιζόμενοι στην ανάλυση, η οποία συμπεριλαμβάνει έναν επαναληπτικό αλγόριθμο ο οποίος συγκλίνει σε πολύ λίγες επαναλήψεις, υπολογίζουμε την Χρησιμοποίηση των ουρών του συστήματος. Στην συνεχεία προσδιορίζουμε τους λοιπούς δείκτες απόδοσης. 2. Παρουσιάζεται διαδικασία εκτίμησης της απόδοσης πολυβάθμιων διασυνδεδεμένων δικτύων μεταγωγής, τα οποία έχουν την ικανότητα να εξυπηρετούν φορτίο με δύο οι περισσότερες προτεραιότητες. Προτάθηκε ένα στοιχειώδες σύστημα μεταγωγής (SE- Switch Element) το οποίο διαθέτει παράλληλες μνήμες σε κάθε είσοδο, μία για κάθε υποστηριζόμενη προτεραιότητα φορτίου, και το οποίο μοντελοποιήθηκε με την βοήθεια ουρών. Βασιζόμενοι στην ανάλυση του μοντέλου αυτού και με την βοήθεια σχετικού επαναληπτικού αλγορίθμου ο οποίος συγκλίνει με λίγες επαναλήψεις, υπολογίστηκαν με ακρίβεια όλοι οι δείκτες απόδοσης. 3. Επιπρόσθετα, αναπτύσσεται μια ακόμη πρωτότυπη αναλυτική προσέγγιση η οποία παρέχει την εκτίμηση της απόδοσης πολυβάθμιων διασυνδεδεμένων δικτύων μεταγωγής με ένα ή περισσότερα επίπεδα τα οποία εφαρμόζουν ως τεχνική εκπομπής πακέτων την τεχνική ‘full multicast’, όταν τα δίκτυα αυτά εξυπηρετούν φορτίο απλής και πολλαπλής εκπομπής (multicast). Δημιουργήθηκε σχετικό μοντέλο για την μελέτη των δικτύων αυτών. Απεδείχθη ότι τα διασυνδεδεμένα δίκτυα τα οποία διαθέτουν περιορισμένο αριθμό επιπέδων, υποστηρίζουν με εξαιρετική αποτελεσματικότητα φορτίο απλής και πολλαπλής εκπομπής (multicast). 4. Αναπτύσσεται και άλλη αναλυτική μελέτη η οποία παρέχει την εκτίμηση της απόδοσης πολυβάθμιων διασυνδεδεμένων δικτύων μεταγωγής με ένα ή περισσότερα επίπεδα τα οποία όμως εφαρμόζουν ως τεχνική εκπομπής πακέτων την τεχνική ‘partial multicast’. 5. Παρουσιάζεται αναλυτική προσέγγιση απόδοσης η οποία αφορά αυτο-δρομολoγούμενα πολυβάθμια συστήματα με περιορισμένα επίπεδα τα οποία όμως εφαρμόζουν ταυτόχρονα δύο διαφορετικές πολιτικές εκπομπής πακέτων, μία σε κάθε τμήμα τους. Και πάλι ακολουθώντας παρόμοια διαδικασία προσδιορίστηκαν όλοι οι δείκτες απόδοσης των πολυβάθμιων δικτύων αυτών 6. Για διευκόλυνση των μελετητών, ορίστηκε ένας γενικός συντελεστής απόδοσης (CPF) του συστήματος ο οποίος εκφράζει την γενική απόδοση μιας πολυβάθμιας συσκευής μεταγωγής πακέτων, λαμβάνοντας υπ όψιν όλους τους ανεξάρτητους δείκτες, με βάση συγκεκριμένα κριτήρια. Αξιοσημείωτο είναι ότι όλες οι αναλυτικές μέθοδοι παρέχουν αναλυτικά αποτελέσματα για όλα τα ενδιάμεσα στάδια. Όλα τα αποτελέσματα τα οποία προέκυψαν από εφαρμογή των αναλυτικών μεθόδων επιβεβαιώθηκαν με προσομοιώσεις που δημιουργήθηκαν γι αυτό τον σκοπό. Επίσης τα αποτελέσματα τα οποία ελήφθησαν από τις αναλυτικές μεθόδους, συγκρίθηκαν με αποτελέσματα από παλαιότερες εργασίες. Η σύγκριση αναδεικνύει την μεγαλύτερη ακρίβεια και ταχύτητα των αναλυτικών μεθόδων που παρουσιάζονται στην παρούσα εργασία έναντι όλων των παλαιοτέρων ερευνητικών τεχνικών. Εξετάζοντας τις σχετική ερευνητική βιβλιογραφία καθίσταται πρόδηλο ότι υπάρχει ανεπάρκεια αναλυτικών μελετών οι οποίες να καλύπτουν θέματα εκτίμησης απόδοσης συγχρόνων δικτύων μεταγωγής, όπως πχ είναι τα πολυεπίπεδα δίκτυα. Οι παραπάνω αναλυτικές προσεγγίσεις αναμένεται να είναι ένα χρήσιμο εργαλείο για τους σχεδιαστές και κατασκευαστές δικτυακών συστημάτων στην προσπάθειά τους να πετύχουν κατασκευή δικτύων με καλύτερη ποιότητα εξυπηρέτησης (QoS). / This research work concerns the performance evaluation of multistage, interconnected switching networks. To assess the performance, approximated analytical models are developed and presented. In particular: 1. A novel integrated methodology for assessing the performance of simple, self-routing, multistage, interconnected networks (e.g. banyan networks), which are formed by symmetrical switch elements, is presented. The model that is created is based on the function and behaviour of a random simple multistage switch system in a memory level (queue). Based on analysis, which includes a repetitive algorithm that converges within a small number of iterations, the queue's’ utilisation is estimated. Subsequently, other performance indicators are determined. 2. A performance evaluation process for multistage interconnection networks, which has the ability to service traffic with two or more classes of priorities, is presented. Particularly, a new switch element which has parallel memories in each entry is proposed to ensure effective servicing of multi-priority traffic. This switch element has one memory for each supported class of priority, and is modelled by means of queues. Based on the analysis provided by this model, and in conjunction with the application of a repetitive algorithm which converges with few iterations, all performance indicators were precisely calculated. 3. In addition, a novel analytical approach was developed that provides a performance evaluation of multistage interconnection networks that have one or more levels which apply the packet transmission ‘full multicast’ method when these networks serve unicast and multicast traffic. A relevant study model for those networks was created. It appears that the interconnected networks which have a limited number of levels lend excellent support with effective unicast and multicast traffic. 4. The study provides a performance evaluation of multistage interconnection networks with one or more levels, and uses a technical transmission packet technique for multicast traffic, the ‘partial multicast’ operation. 5. Also is presented an analytical approach that estimates a performance evaluation of self-routing, multistage interconnection networks (which have a limited number of levels) that apply two different transmission packet techniques in each segment. By application of a similar procedure, all the performance indicators of multistage networks are identified. 6. To assist designers, a compound performance factor (CPF) is defined which expresses the overall performance evaluation of multistage interconnection network devices (taking into account all the individual performance factors, according to a specific set of criteria). It is noteworthy that all of the analytical methods provide detailed results for all intermediate stages. All of the results obtained by application of analytical methods are confirmed by simulations. The results garnered by analytical methods are also compared with the results from previous work. The comparison highlights the greater accuracy and speed that these analytical methods have over older research techniques. Examination of the relevant research literature makes it evident that there is an insufficient number of analytical studies which cover the performance evaluation issue relating to modern switched networks; for example, multi-layered networks. This gap in the field of research is completed by this work. These analytical approaches will be useful tools for designers and manufacturers of network systems in their efforts to provide better quality of service (QoS).

A incerteza é um elemento fundamental da realidade. Então, torna-se natural a busca por métodos que nos permitam representar o desconhecido em termos matemáticos. Esses problemas originam uma grande classe de programas probabilísticos reconhecidos como modelos de programação estocástica. Eles são mais realísticos que os modelos determinísticos, e tem por objetivo incorporar a incerteza em suas definições. Essa tese aborda os problemas probabilísticos da classe de problemas de multi-estágio com incerteza e com restrições probabilísticas e com restrições probabilísticas conjuntas. Inicialmente, nós propomos um modelo de administração de ativos e passivos multi-estágio estocástico para a indústria de fundos de pensão brasileira. Nosso modelo é formalizado em conformidade com a leis e políticas brasileiras. A seguir, dada a relevância dos dados de entrada para esses modelos de otimização, tornamos nossa atenção às diferentes técnicas de amostragem. Elas compõem o processo de discretização desses modelos estocásticos Nós verificamos como as diferentes metodologias de amostragem impactam a solução final e a alocação do portfólio, destacando boas opções para modelos de administração de ativos e passivos. Finalmente, nós propomos um “framework” para a geração de árvores de cenário e otimização de modelos com incerteza multi-estágio. Baseados na tranformação de Knuth, nós geramos a árvore de cenários considerando a representação filho-esqueda, irmão-direita o que torna a simulação mais eficiente em termos de tempo e de número de cenários. Nós também formalizamos uma reformulação do modelo de administração de ativos e passivos baseada na abordagem extensiva implícita para o modelo de otimização. Essa técnica é projetada pela definição de um processo de filtragem com “bundles”; e codifciada com o auxílio de uma linguagem de modelagem algébrica. A eficiência dessa metodologia é testada em um modelo de administração de ativos e passivos com incerteza com restrições probabilísticas conjuntas. Nosso framework torna possível encontrar a solução ótima para árvores com um número razoável de cenários. / Uncertainty is a key element of reality. Thus, it becomes natural that the search for methods allows us to represent the unknown in mathematical terms. These problems originate a large class of probabilistic programs recognized as stochastic programming models. They are more realistic than deterministic ones, and their aim is to incorporate uncertainty into their definitions. This dissertation approaches the probabilistic problem class of multistage stochastic problems with chance constraints and joint-chance constraints. Initially, we propose a multistage stochastic asset liability management (ALM) model for a Brazilian pension fund industry. Our model is formalized in compliance with the Brazilian laws and policies. Next, given the relevance of the input parameters for these optimization models, we turn our attention to different sampling models, which compose the discretization process of these stochastic models. We check how these different sampling methodologies impact on the final solution and the portfolio allocation, outlining good options for ALM models. Finally, we propose a framework for the scenario-tree generation and optimization of multistage stochastic programming problems. Relying on the Knuth transform, we generate the scenario trees, taking advantage of the left-child, right-sibling representation, which makes the simulation more efficient in terms of time and the number of scenarios. We also formalize an ALM model reformulation based on implicit extensive form for the optimization model. This technique is designed by the definition of a filtration process with bundles, and coded with the support of an algebraic modeling language. The efficiency of this methodology is tested in a multistage stochastic ALM model with joint-chance constraints. Our framework makes it possible to reach the optimal solution for trees with a reasonable number of scenarios.

Multistage stochastic optimization is used to solve many real-life problems where decisions are taken at multiple times, e.g., portfolio selection problems. Such problems need the definition of stochastic processes, which are usually approxim- ated by scenario trees. The choice of the size of the scenario trees is the result of a compromise between the best approximation and the possibilities of the com- puter technology. Therefore, once a master scenario tree has been generated, it can be needed to reduce its dimension in order to make the problem computation- ally tractable. In this thesis, we introduce several scenario reduction algorithms and we compare them numerically for different types of master trees. A simple portfolio selection problem is also solved within the study. The distance from the initial scenario tree, the computational time, and the distance between the optimal objective values and solutions are compared for all the scenario reduction algorithms. In particular, we adopt the nested distance to measure the distance between two scenario trees. 1

A incerteza é um elemento fundamental da realidade. Então, torna-se natural a busca por métodos que nos permitam representar o desconhecido em termos matemáticos. Esses problemas originam uma grande classe de programas probabilísticos reconhecidos como modelos de programação estocástica. Eles são mais realísticos que os modelos determinísticos, e tem por objetivo incorporar a incerteza em suas definições. Essa tese aborda os problemas probabilísticos da classe de problemas de multi-estágio com incerteza e com restrições probabilísticas e com restrições probabilísticas conjuntas. Inicialmente, nós propomos um modelo de administração de ativos e passivos multi-estágio estocástico para a indústria de fundos de pensão brasileira. Nosso modelo é formalizado em conformidade com a leis e políticas brasileiras. A seguir, dada a relevância dos dados de entrada para esses modelos de otimização, tornamos nossa atenção às diferentes técnicas de amostragem. Elas compõem o processo de discretização desses modelos estocásticos Nós verificamos como as diferentes metodologias de amostragem impactam a solução final e a alocação do portfólio, destacando boas opções para modelos de administração de ativos e passivos. Finalmente, nós propomos um “framework” para a geração de árvores de cenário e otimização de modelos com incerteza multi-estágio. Baseados na tranformação de Knuth, nós geramos a árvore de cenários considerando a representação filho-esqueda, irmão-direita o que torna a simulação mais eficiente em termos de tempo e de número de cenários. Nós também formalizamos uma reformulação do modelo de administração de ativos e passivos baseada na abordagem extensiva implícita para o modelo de otimização. Essa técnica é projetada pela definição de um processo de filtragem com “bundles”; e codifciada com o auxílio de uma linguagem de modelagem algébrica. A eficiência dessa metodologia é testada em um modelo de administração de ativos e passivos com incerteza com restrições probabilísticas conjuntas. Nosso framework torna possível encontrar a solução ótima para árvores com um número razoável de cenários. / Uncertainty is a key element of reality. Thus, it becomes natural that the search for methods allows us to represent the unknown in mathematical terms. These problems originate a large class of probabilistic programs recognized as stochastic programming models. They are more realistic than deterministic ones, and their aim is to incorporate uncertainty into their definitions. This dissertation approaches the probabilistic problem class of multistage stochastic problems with chance constraints and joint-chance constraints. Initially, we propose a multistage stochastic asset liability management (ALM) model for a Brazilian pension fund industry. Our model is formalized in compliance with the Brazilian laws and policies. Next, given the relevance of the input parameters for these optimization models, we turn our attention to different sampling models, which compose the discretization process of these stochastic models. We check how these different sampling methodologies impact on the final solution and the portfolio allocation, outlining good options for ALM models. Finally, we propose a framework for the scenario-tree generation and optimization of multistage stochastic programming problems. Relying on the Knuth transform, we generate the scenario trees, taking advantage of the left-child, right-sibling representation, which makes the simulation more efficient in terms of time and the number of scenarios. We also formalize an ALM model reformulation based on implicit extensive form for the optimization model. This technique is designed by the definition of a filtration process with bundles, and coded with the support of an algebraic modeling language. The efficiency of this methodology is tested in a multistage stochastic ALM model with joint-chance constraints. Our framework makes it possible to reach the optimal solution for trees with a reasonable number of scenarios.

[pt] O objetivo deste trabalho é propor uma nova metodologia de solução para o problema de planejamento da expansão de sistemas hidrotérmicos, levando em consideração as incertezas nas afluências que chegam aos reservatórios do sistema. O problema consiste em determinar o conjunto de investimentos em usinas hidroelétricas e termoelétricas que minimize a soma dos custos de construção mais o valor esperado do custo de operação ao longo de um determinado período. O problema de expansão pode ser resolvido através de técnicas de decomposição, sendo dividido em um problema mestre que contém as variáveis de investimento e várias subproblemas que contém as variações de operação. O problema mestre pode ser resolvido por técnicas de programação linear ou inteira mista. Os subproblemas de operação, por sua vez, podem ser resolvidos pro Programação Dinâmica Estocástica. Como neste trabalho os reservatórios são representados de forma individualizada, será aplicada a técnica de Programação Dinâmica Dual Estocástica, de forma a evitar o problema da maldição da dimensionalidade da Programação Dinâmica Estocástica. Portanto, o objetivo principal do estudo é investigar mecanismos de coordenação eficientes entre o problema mestre e os subproblemas de operação que levem à otimização global do problema de planejamento da expansão de sistemas elétricos. / [en] The objective of this paper is to present a new methodology for the solution of hydrothermal systems expansion planning problems that takes into account uncertainties of future water inflows to the system reservoirs. The problem consists on the determination of a set of hydroeletric and thermoelectric plants that will be constructed in order to minimize the sum of investiment costs and expected operation costs during the planning period. The expansion problem can be solved by decomposition techniques in which the problem in divided into a master problem that contains the investiment variables and many subproblems that contain the operation variables. The master problem can be solved by linear or integer/linear programming recursion. In this paper, since the system reservoirs are individually represented, Stochastic Dual Dynamic Programming techniques will be applied in order to avoid the "curse of dimensionality" of dynamic programming. The fundamental objective of the study is to investigate efficient coordination mechanisms between master problem and operation subproblems that lead to a global optimization of power systems expansion planning problem.

A DC to AC inverter can be classified in different topologies; some of these topologies are three level and multilevel inverter. Both types have some advantages and disadvantages. Three level inverters can be applied for low power applications because it is cheaper and has less semiconductor losses at high switching frequencies with poor total harmonic distortion (THD). Multilevel inverters (MLI) can be applied for higher power applications with less THD. However, the MLI has more cost and conductive power losses in comparison with three level inverters. In order to overcome the limitations of three and multilevel topologies, this thesis presents a new controlling topology of multilevel DC/AC inverters. The proposed multilevel inverter topology is based on a current source inverter, which consists of a buck/boost, boost and flyback converters, and an H-bridge inverter. The output voltage of the inverter is shaped through the control of just one main semiconductor switch. This new topology offers almost step-less output voltage without the need for multi DC source or several capacitor banks as in the case of other multilevel inverter topologies. The efficiency of the proposed topology is higher than other inverter topologies for medium power applications (2-10 kW). The proposed topology also generates smaller Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) compared to other inverter topologies. The two main key aspects of the proposed circuit is to keep the switching losses as low as possible and this is achieved through the control of a single switch at relatively low frequency and also to generate an improved AC Voltage waveform without the need for any filtering devices. The output frequency and voltage of the proposed circuit can be easily controlled according to the load requirements. The proposed inverter topology is ideal for the connection of renewable energy; this is due to its flexibility in varying its output voltage without the need of fixed turns-ratio transformers used in existing DC/AC inverter topologies. The harmonic contents of the output of this proposed topology can be controlled without the need of any filter. The simulation and practical implementation of the proposed circuits are presented. The practical and simulation results show excellent correlation.