The phrase “miner” is comparatively non-specific as mining is seen as a multi-disciplinary industry that includes several diverse professions and trades (Donoghue, 2004). One of the functions within mining is the operation of earth moving equipment (EME) such as haul trucks, dozers, excavators and graders. EME are generally used to shift large amounts of earth, dig foundations and landscape areas. In this study whole-body vibration (WBV) and noise exposure of earth moving equipment (EME) operators were assessed, at an opencast coalmine in South Africa. The aim was to evaluate and quantify the levels of exposure in different EME types, as well as to compare old with new EME, in order to estimate if machine hours contribute to higher noise and vibration levels. WBV and noise levels of the Production and Rehabilitation operations were compared, to determine whether different activities led to different exposures. Internationally accepted standardised methods, ISO 2631-1 for WBV and SANS 10083:2012 for noise were followed and correctly calibrated instrumentation was used. WBV measurements were conducted with a tri-axial seat pad accelerometer (SVAN 958) and personal noise dosimeters (Casella 35 X) were used for noise measurements. Measurements were taken over a period of four months. With regards to the European Union (EU) limit (1.15 m/s2) and the EU action limit (0.5 m/s2) it was noted that operators of EME within the Production operation were not exposed to WBV levels above the EU limit, but 77% of these operators were exposed to WBV levels above the EU action limit. It was also evident that 45% of operators’ vibration exposure levels were within the Health Guidance Caution Zone (HGCZ) of 0.45 – 0.90 m/s2. Within the Rehabilitation operation, 9% of operators were exposed to WBV levels above the EU limit and 55% above the EU action limit. Furthermore 50% was within the HGCZ. With regards to the noise Occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 85 dB(A) as stated by the Mine Health and Safety Regulations (MHSR) it was noted that 27% of operators within the Production operation were exposed to noise levels above the limit and for operators within the Rehabilitation operation 14% were reported to be exposed at or above the limit. Statistically significant difference in noise exposure was found between the Production operation and Rehabilitation operation. Results indicated that the majority of EME operators were exposed to high noise levels, in some cases exceeding the 85 dB(A) OEL. A significant positive correlation was found between noise exposure levels and machine hours. Thus higher noise levels were observed as machine operating hours increased. It was found that operators were exposed predominantly to vibration and noise levels below the limits. However the Dozer group within the Production and Rehabilitation operations in some cases exceeded the vibration and noise legal limit. High exposure levels within the Dozer group can be attributed to the fact that these EME types mostly perform activities in uneven areas and the tracks on which these Dozers move also contribute to higher vibration levels due to a lack of a suspension. Controls should be implemented as far as is reasonably practicable to ensure that operators are not exposed above recommended or permissible levels for each hazard. Continuous improvement of the maintenance plan for all EME and regularly grading and maintaining travelling ways are some of the controls that will contribute to lower vibration and noise levels. Operators exposed to high noise levels should use hearing protective devices as an early on preventative measure to reduce noise exposure levels. / MSc (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Mining has negative impacts on the environment, and is one of the main contributors to environmental pollution. This holds a potential hazard for ecosystems surrounding mining areas and also for public health in the surrounding communities. There is therefore a need for ecotoxicological research in order to assess these possible risks and find ways to minimize the harmful effects. One way in which to assess soil vitality are soil enzymes which are produced by plants and microorganisms and will therefore be more abundant in healthy soils. Earthworms have been proven to be useful bioindicators for metal contamination of soil, as they are able to accumulate metals from their environment into their body tissue. The aim of this study was to use earthworm bioassays, neutral red retention time analysis (NRRt), enzymatic analysis and RAPD-PCR to determine the effect of mining activity on the environment. This was done by assessing the ecotoxicity of tailings collected from three different mines, viz. gold-, opencast chrome- and coal mines. The metals chosen for analyses included four (Cr, Co, Ni and Pb) of the seven (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cu, Co) environmentally important trace elements as described for South African soils. Arsenic was also chosen since it is associated with gold mine tailings. Tailings and soil were collected from three sites at each of the mines which included unrehabilitated (TDF-U) and rehabilitated (TDF-R) substrates from tailings disposal facilities (TDFs) and reference soils (RS) in close proximity to TDFs. The physical and chemical properties of these different substrates were determined in terms of pH, particle size as well as metal contents. In addition to this, they were analysed for microbial community function by means of enzymatic activity, which has been proven to be useful in evaluating contamination of soil. The enzymes analysed in this study included dehydrogenase, ßglucosidase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase and urease. Earthworms (Eisenia andrei) were exposed to different material for 28 days during which their biomass, reproduction, mortality and lysosomal membrane stability were monitored weekly. Hereafter, they were removed from the material while the cocoons were left behind for a further 56 days. The hatched and unhatched cocoons as well as the juvenile worms were then counted to determine reproduction patterns in the materials. Metal concentrations in the substrates and earthworm body tissues were compared to selected benchmarks. Results indicated that when comparing the different materials from each mine, enzymatic activity proved to be a very sensitive parameter. Enzymatic activity showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between RS, TDF-R and TDF-U materials. Biomass was not a sensitive parameter (p > 0.05) for the worms exposed to the gold and chrome mine tailings, but it was a sensitive parameter (p < 0.05) for the coal mine exposed earthworms, showing early differences between the worms from the different sites (RS, TDF-R and TDF-U). The NRR-t assay was very sensitive (p < 0.05), indicating clear differences between the worms from each investigated site. In terms of reproduction, the production of cocoons showed clear differences (p < 0.05) between the different sites and could therefore be considered a sensitive parameter. Hatching success however, was not a sensitive parameter. The reason being that there were so little cocoons produced that it is not possible to determine the correct percentage of juvenile worms hatching from, for example, only one or two cocoons. Mortality was also not a sensitive endpoint as it was only observed in the coal mine material. RAPD - PCR results indicated genetic differences between earthworms exposed to the control- and the tailings materials, indicating either DNA alterations due to possible genotoxic effects, or genetic variation between individuals of the same species. Since mine waste materials often contain complex mixtures of metals that might be toxic on their own or in combination with other factors, it is difficult to attribute any observed genotoxic effect to any of the specific metals. / Thesis (MSc (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The phrase “miner” is comparatively non-specific as mining is seen as a multi-disciplinary industry that includes several diverse professions and trades (Donoghue, 2004). One of the functions within mining is the operation of earth moving equipment (EME) such as haul trucks, dozers, excavators and graders. EME are generally used to shift large amounts of earth, dig foundations and landscape areas. In this study whole-body vibration (WBV) and noise exposure of earth moving equipment (EME) operators were assessed, at an opencast coalmine in South Africa. The aim was to evaluate and quantify the levels of exposure in different EME types, as well as to compare old with new EME, in order to estimate if machine hours contribute to higher noise and vibration levels. WBV and noise levels of the Production and Rehabilitation operations were compared, to determine whether different activities led to different exposures. Internationally accepted standardised methods, ISO 2631-1 for WBV and SANS 10083:2012 for noise were followed and correctly calibrated instrumentation was used. WBV measurements were conducted with a tri-axial seat pad accelerometer (SVAN 958) and personal noise dosimeters (Casella 35 X) were used for noise measurements. Measurements were taken over a period of four months. With regards to the European Union (EU) limit (1.15 m/s2) and the EU action limit (0.5 m/s2) it was noted that operators of EME within the Production operation were not exposed to WBV levels above the EU limit, but 77% of these operators were exposed to WBV levels above the EU action limit. It was also evident that 45% of operators’ vibration exposure levels were within the Health Guidance Caution Zone (HGCZ) of 0.45 – 0.90 m/s2. Within the Rehabilitation operation, 9% of operators were exposed to WBV levels above the EU limit and 55% above the EU action limit. Furthermore 50% was within the HGCZ. With regards to the noise Occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 85 dB(A) as stated by the Mine Health and Safety Regulations (MHSR) it was noted that 27% of operators within the Production operation were exposed to noise levels above the limit and for operators within the Rehabilitation operation 14% were reported to be exposed at or above the limit. Statistically significant difference in noise exposure was found between the Production operation and Rehabilitation operation. Results indicated that the majority of EME operators were exposed to high noise levels, in some cases exceeding the 85 dB(A) OEL. A significant positive correlation was found between noise exposure levels and machine hours. Thus higher noise levels were observed as machine operating hours increased. It was found that operators were exposed predominantly to vibration and noise levels below the limits. However the Dozer group within the Production and Rehabilitation operations in some cases exceeded the vibration and noise legal limit. High exposure levels within the Dozer group can be attributed to the fact that these EME types mostly perform activities in uneven areas and the tracks on which these Dozers move also contribute to higher vibration levels due to a lack of a suspension. Controls should be implemented as far as is reasonably practicable to ensure that operators are not exposed above recommended or permissible levels for each hazard. Continuous improvement of the maintenance plan for all EME and regularly grading and maintaining travelling ways are some of the controls that will contribute to lower vibration and noise levels. Operators exposed to high noise levels should use hearing protective devices as an early on preventative measure to reduce noise exposure levels. / MSc (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Mining has negative impacts on the environment, and is one of the main contributors to environmental pollution. This holds a potential hazard for ecosystems surrounding mining areas and also for public health in the surrounding communities. There is therefore a need for ecotoxicological research in order to assess these possible risks and find ways to minimize the harmful effects. One way in which to assess soil vitality are soil enzymes which are produced by plants and microorganisms and will therefore be more abundant in healthy soils. Earthworms have been proven to be useful bioindicators for metal contamination of soil, as they are able to accumulate metals from their environment into their body tissue. The aim of this study was to use earthworm bioassays, neutral red retention time analysis (NRRt), enzymatic analysis and RAPD-PCR to determine the effect of mining activity on the environment. This was done by assessing the ecotoxicity of tailings collected from three different mines, viz. gold-, opencast chrome- and coal mines. The metals chosen for analyses included four (Cr, Co, Ni and Pb) of the seven (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cu, Co) environmentally important trace elements as described for South African soils. Arsenic was also chosen since it is associated with gold mine tailings. Tailings and soil were collected from three sites at each of the mines which included unrehabilitated (TDF-U) and rehabilitated (TDF-R) substrates from tailings disposal facilities (TDFs) and reference soils (RS) in close proximity to TDFs. The physical and chemical properties of these different substrates were determined in terms of pH, particle size as well as metal contents. In addition to this, they were analysed for microbial community function by means of enzymatic activity, which has been proven to be useful in evaluating contamination of soil. The enzymes analysed in this study included dehydrogenase, ßglucosidase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase and urease. Earthworms (Eisenia andrei) were exposed to different material for 28 days during which their biomass, reproduction, mortality and lysosomal membrane stability were monitored weekly. Hereafter, they were removed from the material while the cocoons were left behind for a further 56 days. The hatched and unhatched cocoons as well as the juvenile worms were then counted to determine reproduction patterns in the materials. Metal concentrations in the substrates and earthworm body tissues were compared to selected benchmarks. Results indicated that when comparing the different materials from each mine, enzymatic activity proved to be a very sensitive parameter. Enzymatic activity showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between RS, TDF-R and TDF-U materials. Biomass was not a sensitive parameter (p > 0.05) for the worms exposed to the gold and chrome mine tailings, but it was a sensitive parameter (p < 0.05) for the coal mine exposed earthworms, showing early differences between the worms from the different sites (RS, TDF-R and TDF-U). The NRR-t assay was very sensitive (p < 0.05), indicating clear differences between the worms from each investigated site. In terms of reproduction, the production of cocoons showed clear differences (p < 0.05) between the different sites and could therefore be considered a sensitive parameter. Hatching success however, was not a sensitive parameter. The reason being that there were so little cocoons produced that it is not possible to determine the correct percentage of juvenile worms hatching from, for example, only one or two cocoons. Mortality was also not a sensitive endpoint as it was only observed in the coal mine material. RAPD - PCR results indicated genetic differences between earthworms exposed to the control- and the tailings materials, indicating either DNA alterations due to possible genotoxic effects, or genetic variation between individuals of the same species. Since mine waste materials often contain complex mixtures of metals that might be toxic on their own or in combination with other factors, it is difficult to attribute any observed genotoxic effect to any of the specific metals. / Thesis (MSc (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

As a developing country, South Africa is in dire need of socio-economic development and upliftment, especially in the light of past inequalities. Mining generates massive amounts of revenue and creates employment for the masses and could therefore contribute successfully towards socio-economic development, especially in a country which is richly endowed with mineral resources. Mining seems unsustainable due to the fact that it leads to the destruction of the natural environment and the depletion of non-renewable resources. Mining companies must nonetheless strive to achieve sustainability. The Constitution stipulates that the State should establish an environmental governance framework to, amongst others, protect the environment and prevent pollution while ensuring justifiable social and economic development. While the Constitution emphasises the importance of the integration, the question remains as to how the notion of sustainable development should be interpreted in a country suffering from severe poverty and a need for social and economic development. The aim of this study is to determine how the sustainability concept within mining and environmental legislation could be interpreted and given effect in order to ensure better environmental governance within the mining sector. This study indicates that the current environmental governance framework regulating the mining industry is fragmented and lacks the necessary criteria to ensure sustainability. For the purposes of this study, a sustainability model was developed for the mining industry along the lines of the different layers of an "onion" to illustrate the interdependence of the different layers of sustainability. To ensure better sustainability within the environmental governance framework, currently regulating the mining industry, sustainability criteria should be developed, clearly indicating how the different layers of sustainable development should be weighed, balanced and integrated by decision-makers. / Thesis (LL.M. (Environmental law))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

As a developing country, South Africa is in dire need of socio-economic development and upliftment, especially in the light of past inequalities. Mining generates massive amounts of revenue and creates employment for the masses and could therefore contribute successfully towards socio-economic development, especially in a country which is richly endowed with mineral resources. Mining seems unsustainable due to the fact that it leads to the destruction of the natural environment and the depletion of non-renewable resources. Mining companies must nonetheless strive to achieve sustainability. The Constitution stipulates that the State should establish an environmental governance framework to, amongst others, protect the environment and prevent pollution while ensuring justifiable social and economic development. While the Constitution emphasises the importance of the integration, the question remains as to how the notion of sustainable development should be interpreted in a country suffering from severe poverty and a need for social and economic development. The aim of this study is to determine how the sustainability concept within mining and environmental legislation could be interpreted and given effect in order to ensure better environmental governance within the mining sector. This study indicates that the current environmental governance framework regulating the mining industry is fragmented and lacks the necessary criteria to ensure sustainability. For the purposes of this study, a sustainability model was developed for the mining industry along the lines of the different layers of an "onion" to illustrate the interdependence of the different layers of sustainability. To ensure better sustainability within the environmental governance framework, currently regulating the mining industry, sustainability criteria should be developed, clearly indicating how the different layers of sustainable development should be weighed, balanced and integrated by decision-makers. / Thesis (LL.M. (Environmental law))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Mining contributes significantly to the economic development of South Africa, contributes to pollution and other negative environmental impacts. Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Constitution) places a duty on government to, amongst others adopt legislative measures to protect the environment, prevent pollution and degradation, and secure sustainable development, while promoting justifiable economic and social development. Government responded with the introduction of new acts or the amendment of existing acts most of which require an authorisation process as a “command and control” tool to enforce environmental governance within the mining sector. The abovementioned legislative development will be discussed from a historical perspective up to the current developments. The research aims to attempt to align the authorisation process pertaining to mining. The mining life cycle will be illustrated and the authorisation requirements for each of the mining life cycle processes will be discussed alongside its challenges such as fragmentation, lack of capacity in government sectors, lack of communication and cooperative governance within government. The lack of focus within the authorisation requirements will be deliberated. To avoid the negative consequences of the current authorisation processes such as duplication, unnecessary time delays and the stifling of economic growth, an investigation into how the various fragmented authorisation processes can be aligned into a single streamlined authorisation process which will contribute to the sustainable development within South Africa will be made. / MPhil (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Mining contributes significantly to the economic development of South Africa, contributes to pollution and other negative environmental impacts. Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Constitution) places a duty on government to, amongst others adopt legislative measures to protect the environment, prevent pollution and degradation, and secure sustainable development, while promoting justifiable economic and social development. Government responded with the introduction of new acts or the amendment of existing acts most of which require an authorisation process as a “command and control” tool to enforce environmental governance within the mining sector. The abovementioned legislative development will be discussed from a historical perspective up to the current developments. The research aims to attempt to align the authorisation process pertaining to mining. The mining life cycle will be illustrated and the authorisation requirements for each of the mining life cycle processes will be discussed alongside its challenges such as fragmentation, lack of capacity in government sectors, lack of communication and cooperative governance within government. The lack of focus within the authorisation requirements will be deliberated. To avoid the negative consequences of the current authorisation processes such as duplication, unnecessary time delays and the stifling of economic growth, an investigation into how the various fragmented authorisation processes can be aligned into a single streamlined authorisation process which will contribute to the sustainable development within South Africa will be made. / MPhil (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The objective of this study is to conduct a critical evaluation of the Namibian law and policy framework that currently regulates small-scale mining in Namibia. The discussion begins with an introduction to small-scale mining in Namibia which deals with the practice of small-scale mining, inter alia, as far as it is defined and the possible affects thereof. Small-scale mining affects various second generation rights of persons directly involved therein as well as the community as a whole. These rights include child labour; unemployment; gender issues; public health care; occupational health and safety; access to finance; poverty alleviation; and access to mining tools, machinery, markets and buyers. The law and policy framework applicable to small-scale mining in Namibia is accordingly critically discussed in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the current framework. It is found that small-scale mining is quite well regulated in Namibia, but the current law and policy framework is not without its problems. Some of the main weaknesses identified are the centralised nature of the application for and pegging of claims, the lack of formal provision and regulation of the off-set markets, and the lack of access to finance for smallscale miners. Recommendations are made, such as that regulatory measures should be put in place to make provision for and to regulate the off-set markets for the minerals being mined by the artisanal miners. At the end of the study further research topics which relate directly to the regulation of small-scale mining in Namibia are identified. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The objective of this study is to conduct a critical evaluation of the Namibian law and policy framework that currently regulates small-scale mining in Namibia. The discussion begins with an introduction to small-scale mining in Namibia which deals with the practice of small-scale mining, inter alia, as far as it is defined and the possible affects thereof. Small-scale mining affects various second generation rights of persons directly involved therein as well as the community as a whole. These rights include child labour; unemployment; gender issues; public health care; occupational health and safety; access to finance; poverty alleviation; and access to mining tools, machinery, markets and buyers. The law and policy framework applicable to small-scale mining in Namibia is accordingly critically discussed in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the current framework. It is found that small-scale mining is quite well regulated in Namibia, but the current law and policy framework is not without its problems. Some of the main weaknesses identified are the centralised nature of the application for and pegging of claims, the lack of formal provision and regulation of the off-set markets, and the lack of access to finance for smallscale miners. Recommendations are made, such as that regulatory measures should be put in place to make provision for and to regulate the off-set markets for the minerals being mined by the artisanal miners. At the end of the study further research topics which relate directly to the regulation of small-scale mining in Namibia are identified. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014