This thesis is a study of the effects of distributed roughness elements on a two-dimensional turbulent boundary layer. Measurements were taken on a total of ten rough wall configurations: four involving Gaussian spikes, and six with circular cylindrical posts. Rough wall flows are particularly suited to study with Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) due to the fact that measurements are required near a solid surface, as well has in highly turbulent fluid. The LDV system used in this study is a fine resolution (~50 micron), three-component, fiber optic system. All mean velocities, Reynolds stresses, and triple products are measured. This study is unique in the range and variety of roughness cases for which data was taken. The data show that the flow over a rough wall is characterized by high levels of turbulence near the roughness element peaks at the interface between low-speed, near-wall fluid and the higher speed fluid above. Behind an element, high-momentum fluid sweeps toward the wall, and there is a small region of ejection of low-momentum fluid. Cylindrical elements typically have larger magnitudes of turbulent stresses at their peaks compared to Gaussian elements. Trends in mean velocity profile parameters such as displacement height, roughness effect, and wake parameter are examined with respect to roughness element geometry and spacing. / Master of Science

The potential of flexible micro pillars for measuring near wall flow phenom- ena was theoretically and experimentally investigated. The bending of the micro pillars is a measure for the local wall shear stress (WSS) or a visualisa- tion of near wall flow phenomena. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was chosen as material for the sensor. Within the thesis the experimental work with the shear stress sensor mainly has the focus on the transition to turbulence. Closely connected are improvements of the measurement techniques. The transition is thereby investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. Another huge part of the thesis was the improvement of the reliability of the manu- facturing process of the micro pillars. For this purpose new manufacturing methods for single pillars and pillar arrays have been tested. Further on, dif- ferent detection methods for capturing the bending of the pillar were tested, too. The measurements of the transitional flow were performed at flat plate boundary layer in an oil channel. Ondina 913 was used as test fluid. The physical properties of the PDMS changed dramatically while longer exposed to Ondina 913. Hence, it was unfeasible to receive reproducible quantita- tive results. Better results were achieved if the pillars are used as flexible micro tufts revealing the flow and WSS topology directly at the wall quali- tatively. With the pillar sensor it was possible to detect turbulent spots in the transitional state of the flat plate boundary layer. Furthermore, coherent structures and their typical sign in the viscous sublayer could be identified and the occurrence of critical points and back flow could be experimentally verified.

The potential of flexible micro pillars for measuring near wall flow phenom- ena was theoretically and experimentally investigated. The bending of the micro pillars is a measure for the local wall shear stress (WSS) or a visualisa- tion of near wall flow phenomena. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was chosen as material for the sensor. Within the thesis the experimental work with the shear stress sensor mainly has the focus on the transition to turbulence. Closely connected are improvements of the measurement techniques. The transition is thereby investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. Another huge part of the thesis was the improvement of the reliability of the manu- facturing process of the micro pillars. For this purpose new manufacturing methods for single pillars and pillar arrays have been tested. Further on, dif- ferent detection methods for capturing the bending of the pillar were tested, too. The measurements of the transitional flow were performed at flat plate boundary layer in an oil channel. Ondina 913 was used as test fluid. The physical properties of the PDMS changed dramatically while longer exposed to Ondina 913. Hence, it was unfeasible to receive reproducible quantita- tive results. Better results were achieved if the pillars are used as flexible micro tufts revealing the flow and WSS topology directly at the wall quali- tatively. With the pillar sensor it was possible to detect turbulent spots in the transitional state of the flat plate boundary layer. Furthermore, coherent structures and their typical sign in the viscous sublayer could be identified and the occurrence of critical points and back flow could be experimentally verified.

Modeling the effects of surface roughness is an area of concern in many practical engineering applications. Many current roughness models to this point have involved the use of empirical 'constants' and equivalent sand grain roughness. These underdeveloped concepts have little direct relationship to realistic roughness and cannot predict accurately and consistently the flow characteristics for different roughness shapes. In order to aid in the development of turbulence models, the present research is centered around the experimental investigation of seven various shaped single roughness elements and their effects on turbulence quantities in a two-dimensional turbulent boundary layer. The elements under scrutiny are as follows: cone, cone with spatial variations equal to the smallest sublayer structure length scale, cone with spatial variations equal to 2.5 times the smallest sublayer structure length scale, Gaussian-shaped element, hemisphere, cube aligned perpendicular to the flow (cube at 90°), and a cube rotated 45° relative to the flow. The roughness element heights, k+, non-dimensionalized by the friction velocity (U_tau) of the approaching turbulent boundary layer, are 145, 145, 145, 145, 80, 98, and 98 respectively. Analysis of a three-dimensional fetch of the same Gaussian-shaped elements described previously was also undertaken. In order to analyze the complex flow fields, detailed measurements were obtained using a fine-measurement-volume (50 micron diameter) three-velocity component laser-Doppler velocimetry (LDV) system. The data reveals the formation of a horseshoe vortex in front of the element, which induces the downwash of higher momentum fluid toward the wall. This 'sweep' motion not only creates high Reynolds stresses (v^2, w^2, -uv) downstream of the element, but also leads to higher skin-friction drag. Triple products were also found to be very significant near the height of the element. These parameters are important in regards to the contribution of the production and diffusion of the turbulent kinetic energy in the flow. The 'peakiness' of the roughness element was found to have a direct correlation to the production of circulation, whereas the spatial smoothing does not have an immense effect on this parameter. The peaked elements were found to have a similar trend in the decay of circulation in the streamwise direction. These elements tend to show a decay proportional to (x/d)^-1.12, whereas the cube elements and the hemisphere do not have a common trend. A model equation is proposed for a drag correlation common to all roughness elements. This equation takes into account the viscous drag and pressure drag terms in the calculation of the actual drag due to the roughness elements presence in the boundary layer. The size, shape, frontal and wetted surface areas of the roughness elements are related to one another via this model equation. Flow drawings related to each element are presented which gives rise to a deeper understanding of the physics of the flow associated with each roughness element. / Master of Science