Research has repeatedly shown that the total number of hours college students spend studying for their courses is a poor predictor of measures of student performance. Two studies used questionnaires to examine alternative measures of study time based on the principles of deliberate practice that have successfully predicted performance in many other domains. The first study collected total study time and split this estimate into time spent studying alone in an environment free of distractions (high quality), and time spent in an environment when distractions that may detract from full concentration were present (low quality). There was partial support for using this method with the finding that low quality study negatively predicted student GPA. This method accounted for 3 percent additional variance after accounting for SAT scores. The second study extended on these findings by creating a more detailed measure of study time, examining this method of measuring study time in relation to subscales from the MSLQ, and introducing a new scale called regimentation based on evidence that expert violinists use highly routine schedules to prioritize their practice. The results indicated that high quality and low quality study time predicted significant positive and negative contributions to GPA, respectively, and these measures were significant even after including Metacognitive-Self Regulation and Time and Study Environment subscales in the model. Regimentation was the best predictor of GPA outside of SAT scores in the complete model. The findings of this research support deliberate practice as a valid measure of student performance and further applications of this approach towards educational research are discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 28, 2013. / Deliberate Practice, GPA, Higher Education, Regimentation, Study Time / Includes bibliographical references. / Anders Ericsson, Professor Directing Thesis; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member; Ashby Plant, Committee Member.

Hypothalamic orexin neurons project to the hindbrain, and 4th-intracerebroventricular (4th-icv) orexin-A treatment increases food intake. Here, we assessed the effects of hindbrain orexin-A and the selective orexin-1-receptor antagonist SB334867 on meal pattern in rats consuming standard chow. When injected 4th-icv shortly before dark onset, lower doses of orexin-A increased food intake over a 2-h period by significantly increasing the size of the first meal relative to vehicle, whereas the highest dose increased food intake by causing the second meal to be taken sooner. Conversely, hindbrain orexin-1-receptor blockade significantly reduced food intake by decreasing the size of the first meal of the dark phase. We also examined the effects of 4th-icv orexin-A and SB334867 on locomotor activity. Only the highest dose of orexin-A increased activity, and SB334867 had no effect. These data support the suggestion that endogenous hindbrain orexin-A acts to limit satiation. Both orexin-A and the pancreatic satiation hormone amylin require an intact Area Postrema (AP) to affect food intake, so we asked whether 4th-icv orexin-A impairs the satiating effect of peripheral amylin treatment. Amylin significantly reduced the size of the first meal of the dark cycle when rats were pre-treated with 4th-icv saline, yet amylin was ineffective after 4th-icv orexin-A pre-treatment. Using double-label immunohistochemistry, we determined that some orexin-A fibers in the AP are located in proximity to amylin-responsive neurons. We conclude that hindbrain orexin-A may increase food intake in part by reducing the ability of rats to respond to amylin during a meal. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Summer Semester, 2011. / May 18, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references. / Diana L. Williams, Professor Directing Thesis; James Michael Overton, Committee Member; Pam Keel, Committee Member.

It is well known that exposure to severe stress increases the risk for developing mood disorders. However, less is known about the complex interactions between witnessing and experiencing traumatic events. While much has been learned from animal models of traumatic stress, current models emphasize physical stressors, while models of emotional stress focus on maternal separation and social isolation paradigms, among others. However, it is common for post-traumatic stress disorder to develop in individuals who simply witness intense violence. Therefore, it is critical to develop animal models that will allow for independent assessment of the neurobiological consequences of emotional stress. This study introduces a novel social stressor that is insulated from the effects of physical stress. In this study, male C57BL/6J mice witnessed the social defeat of another mouse. Briefly, the home cage of a male CD-1 retired breeder mouse was divided by a Plexiglas divider into two identical adjacent compartments. An adult male C57BL/6J mouse was introduced into the compartment territorialized by the CD-1 mouse where it was repeatedly defeated and demonstrated escape-like behaviors, vocalizations, and submissive posturing, while a second male C57BL/6J mouse witnessed this interaction from the adjacent compartment (i.e., emotional stress: ES). The results demonstrate that 10 days of exposure to ES induces long-lasting deficits in a battery of behavioral assays designed to assess changes in mood. Specifically, ES exposure increases sensitivity to anxiety- and stress-eliciting situations as measured by the social interaction, elevated plus-maze, sucrose preference, and the forced swim tests both 24 h and 1 month after witnessing physical stress. Increases in levels of serum corticosterone, a steroid hormone signaling stress response, accompanied these behavioral deficits. Taken together, these data indicate that witnessing traumatic stress is a potent stressor in adult male mice capable of inducing long-lasting neurobiological perturbations. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Fall Semester, 2010. / October 27, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references. / Carlos A. Bolaños-Guzmán, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Mohamed Kabbaj, Committee Member; Zuoxin Wang, Committee Member.

The contingent spatial blink paradigm developed by Folk, Leber, and Egeth (2002) reveals a surprising lack of control when it comes to our ability to maintain attention sets (goals). A completely irrelevant distractor sharing the color of a target letter captures attention and impairs identification even when this distractor is spatially distant from the target's location and the target's location is known, central and constant. This contrasts with subjective everyday experience in which we are able to efficiently restrict search based on known target locations. However, unlike the tasks and environments we navigate every day, laboratory paradigms measuring attentional control are typically visually sparse, abstract and devoid of context. We begin to ask the question: what are the cues present in complex everyday environments that allow for the efficient restriction of attention that are absent in laboratory capture paradigms? Three experiments explored this question. Experiment 1 examined how distractor frequency and distractor location consistency might influence capture rates. Experiment 2 tested whether spatial context in the form of a simple scene might generate more precise attention sets robust to peripheral distraction. Finally, Experiment 3 investigated potential capture reduction gained from combining multiple attention restricting elements from the previous experiments. Few manipulations decreased capture rate, and when capture rate was decreased it was not decreased by much. However, results suggest that multiple, simultaneous cues can reduce contingent capture over and above individual cues, thereby providing insight into how observers are able to employ efficient attentional allocation in complex environments. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / February 14, 2013. / Attention capture, Contingent capture, Visual attention / Includes bibliographical references. / Walter R. Boot, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael P. Kaschak, Committee Member; Jon K. Maner, Committee Member.

College is an ideal setting to evaluate and treat mental health issues. Most mental health disorders have first onset by young adulthood and half of all young adults attend some form of post-secondary institution. Additionally, many institutions offer free or low-cost mental health care right on campus which removes two major barriers to treatment, accessibility and finances. Despite this, most mental health disorders in college students go untreated. Students with alcohol use disorders go untreated most frequently (only 7.6% receiving treatment). Interestingly, comorbid alcohol use disorders and anxiety/mood disorders show much greater rates (42-58%) of receiving treatment despite those with unimorbid anxiety disorders (16%) receiving treatment) and unimorbid mood disorders (34% receiving treatment) showing low rates of getting needed help. This investigation examined possible reasons why such a large percentage of students who are experiencing frequent and severe negative consequences of alcohol use, anxiety disorders and mood disorders are not in treatment. Analyses revealed that problem drinking college students with comorbid mood/anxiety disorders showed greater treatment seeking interest and behavior. However, this could be the result of greater negative consequences of alcohol use among the comorbid problem drinkers. Additionally, results of a model that tested the effects of alcohol problem recognition, perceived efficacy of treatment, and perceived accessibility of treatment on student treatment seeking behavior were mixed. Finally, positive consequences of drinking did not show a relationship to treatment seeking behavior but were an incremental predictor of alcohol use problems above and beyond more commonly used measures of college alcohol problems. Implications for future policy and clinical developments are discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2011. / July 12, 2011. / alcohol, anxiety, college, comorbidity, depression, treatment seeking / Includes bibliographical references. / Norman B. Schmidt, Professor Directing Thesis; Jeanette Taylor, Committee Member; Jon Maner, Committee Member.

Across three studies, parts of a mediational model to explain the relationship between belief in free will and attitudes toward certain outgroups were tested. Study 1 tested and found support for the correlational hypothesis that belief in free will would be negatively related to attitudes toward people who identify as homosexual. Study 2 tested and found support for the correlational hypothesis that perception of outgroup membership as a choice would negatively predict attitudes toward those outgroups. Study 3 tested but did not find support for a mediational model. Specifically, it was predicted that the relationship between belief in free will and attitudes toward outgroups would be mediated by the perception that group membership was a choice. This model was predicted for outgroups in which it there was some cultural discourse as to whether membership was chosen. Specifically, this mediational model was predicted for homosexuality, obesity, and poverty, but not for Asians or a fictitious group, the Zeb. The manipulation in Study 3 failed to pass a manipulation check limiting the interpretation of the results. Studies 1 and 2, however provide preliminary support for a relationship between the variables of interest (free will belief, perception of group membership as a choice, and attitudes toward outgroups), but no causal claims can be made. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 20, 2013. / attitudes, choice, free will belief / Includes bibliographical references. / Roy F. Baumeister, Professor Directing Dissertation; Al Mele, University Representative; Dianne M. Tice, Committee Member; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Mary Gerend, Committee Member; Walter Boot, Committee Member.

The most common treatment strategy for adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) is combined methylphenidate (MPH) and fluoxetine (FLX). This has raised concerns because combined MPH+FLX treatment may have pharmacodynamic properties similar to cocaine, potentially increasing drug abuse liability. Chronic exposure to cocaine results in very distinct patterns of gene expression and it is important to know if combined MPH+FLX results in the same pattern of expression. To this end, adult (PD 70-84) and adolescent (postnatal days [PD] 21-34) male mice were exposed to vehicle, MPH, FLX, MPH+FLX, or cocaine treatment twice daily for 15 days. Mice were sacrificed 24 h or 2 months after the last drug injection to assess the effect of drug treatment on the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinse-1/2 (ERK) pathway within the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a brain region known to be key in mediating the reinforcing properties of reward. Sensitivity for nicotine (0.07 mg/kg) was assessed as measured by the place-conditioning paradigm (CPP) 24 hours and 2 months after adolescent drug pretreatment. MPH+FLX and cocaine exposure during adolescence increased mRNA expression of ERK2 and its downstream targets cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), c-Fos, and early growth response protein (Zif268), and also increased protein phosphorylation ERK2 and CREB 2 months after drug exposure when compared to vehicle-treated controls. Adolescent drug pretreatment increased preference for nicotine when tested in adulthood. These results indicate that combined MPH+FLX and cocaine exposure during adolescence have a similar profile: disrupt the ERK pathway, a signaling cascade implicated in motivation and mood regulation, within the VTA, while increasing sensitivity for nicotine in adulthood. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 21, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references. / Carlos A. Bolaños-Guzmán, Professor Directing Thesis; Janet Kistner, Committee Member; Frank Johnson, Committee Member.

A number of studies have evaluated affective processing via the late positive potential (LPP), an event-related potential (ERP) measure that shows enhancement in response to affective relative to neutral pictures (cf. Cuthbert, Schupp, Bradley, Birbaumer, & Lang, 2000). More recent work based on the LPP has begun to investigate how automatic and other post-perceptual (e.g., evaluative and regulatory) processes influence the affectively modulated LPP. Although evidence exists supporting the idea that the LPP is influenced by both automatic and other types of processing, the experimental conditions used to study the LPP have not been adequate to effectively parse these components (typical long stimulus delivery times leaving room for numerous post-perceptual processes to occur during the LPP). In the current study, the LPP was evaluated in a new (Incidental Picture-Viewing, IPV) task where affective pictures were presented briefly and unexpectedly in the context of a common oddball task, with the goal of better isolating automatic components of the LPP. A comparison (Directed Picture-Viewing, DPV) task was also included that presented affective pictures as is typical in LPP work (presenting stimuli for longer durations, and as the primary focus of attention). In addition to evaluating the LPP in these two tasks, we sought to further assess the earlier P3 component, which overlaps with LPP and has also been shown to be modulated by affective stimuli. Specifically, time-frequency (TF) signal representations, characterized with principal components analysis (PCA), were used to parse overlapping components that contribute to overall time-domain P3 and LPP in each task. Results indicated that affect-neutral differences were elicited in the LPP and P3 components in both tasks, and that similar slow-wave affective processes contributed to those affect-neutral differences. In contrast to the LPP, however, which was dominated solely by slow-wave affective differences, P3 contained an amalgam of slow-wave and higher frequency (delta and theta) affective processes. Further, although slow-wave affect-neutral differences were significantly larger in the DPV task, this affective slow-wave component was correlated modestly between tasks, supporting the view that it indexed, in part, a common affective process across tasks. Findings suggest that the LPP was robust against this strong attention manipulation and provide important insights about the nature of the affective processing observed in the LPP and P3. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2011. / August 12, 2011. / Event-Related Potential, Late Positive Potential, P3, Picture-Viewing, Time-Frequency / Includes bibliographical references. / Edward M. Bernat, Professor Directing Thesis; Christopher J. Patrick, Committee Member; Lisa Eckel, Committee Member.

In addition to the known behavioral and cognitive impairments, including memory deficits, depression, and anxiety associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI), there is an increased risk for new onset heavy weekly drinking, binge drinking, and alcohol-related problems. Our previously published work has shown that zinc supplementation reduced TBI-associated deficits, particularly the depression-like symptom anhedonia and stress-induced anxiety. Our objective was to examine the behavioral and cellular outcomes associated with TBI that are complicated by ethanol consumption, as well as the effect of zinc supplementation on these outcomes. Adult male rats were fed a zinc supplemented (180 ppm) or zinc adequate (30 ppm) diet for 4 weeks followed by a moderate TBI using to the medial frontal cortex produced by controlled cortical impact. After injury, rats were given 3 g/kg of ethanol daily for 7 days via gavage. Ethanol intake exacerbated TBI-induced anxiety-like and depression-like behaviors as well inducing recognition memory impairments. Furthermore, zinc supplementation was unable to reduce these behavioral deficits when injury was accompanied by ethanol intake. While ethanol did not worsen learning and memory, zinc supplementation also did not improve Morris water maze performance in ethanol-treated animals. Evidence in the literature has demonstrated that both brain injury and ethanol can regulate neurogenesis. We then wanted to examine the extent to which changes in stem cells are responsible for our behavioral observations. TBI produced a trend towards increased hippocampal stem cells, and zinc supplementation with injury resulted in a significant increase in stem cells 8 days post-injury. Ethanol did not appear to impair TBI or zinc supplemented induced proliferation. There was a small trend towards a decrease in differentiation of these labelled proliferating stem cells with ethanol and TBI combined. Finally, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the role of zinc in neuronal precursor cells and neuronal differentiation were examined. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Biomedical Sciences in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2015. / April 8, 2015. / behavior, brain injury, ethanol, stem cells, zinc / Includes bibliographical references. / Cathy W. Levenson, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lei Zhu, University Representative; James Olcese, Committee Member; Yi Zhou, Committee Member.

Mating is a socially rewarding experience that yields protective benefits to health, confers resistance to stress, and lowers anxiety-related behaviors in a number of mammalian species, including humans and rodents. These beneficial effects may stem from hormonal and neurobiological changes that not only promote and maintain sexual function but also alleviate stress and anxiety. However, the brain sites and biological mechanisms regulating such effects are poorly understood. Sexual activity increases serum testosterone levels and stimulates gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) containing cells, both of which can reduce anxiety and attenuate stress responses of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. One brain region that potentially mediates these effects is the medial preoptic area (MPOA) of the hypothalamus, a critical site for male sexual behavior, anti-sympathetic function, and testosterone- and GABA-mediated suppression of the PVN. This dissertation investigates whether steroid sensitive cells in the MPOA and PVN afferents are involved in mating-induced anxiolysis and stress reduction. Here, I report that repeated mating lowers anxiety-like behaviors and corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) expression in the PVN. Sexually experienced males also exhibit lower levels of stress-reactive serum corticosterone and less stress-induced c-Fos immunoreactivity (ir) in hypophysiotrophic neurons that contain CRH, compared to sexually naïve males subjected to stress. Together, this suggests that sexual experience buffers behavioral, physiological, and neuronal responses to stress. Additionally, unilateral intra-MPOA administration of an androgen receptor (AR) antagonist prior to each mating session blocked the suppressive effects of mating on stress-induced c-Fos reactivity in ipsilateral PVN, demonstrating a critical role for ARs in mating-induced stress attenuation. Further, sexually experienced males displayed higher AR expression in the MPOA, as evident from immunohistochemical analysis and western immunoblots. Moreover, dual immunolabeling revealed that AR-ir preoptic cells co-localize with GABA, indicating a potential inhibitory role for androgen-mediated actions in the MPOA. Lastly, to better understand how activity in the MPOA affects functioning in the PVN, a circuit level of analysis was employed. Here, the retrograde neuronal tracer, Fluorgold (FG) was microinfused into the PVN and afferents to the PVN from the MPOA were examined. Retrograde tracing confirmed that PVN afferents emanate from the MPOA. Further, retrograde tracing combined with immunolabeling revealed that a dense population of AR-ir cells in the MPOA express FG, and thus project to the PVN. In addition, a subpopulation of mating-induced c-Fos-ir cells were also co-labeled with FG, indicating that mating stimulates PVN afferents from the MPOA. Collectively, these data demonstrate that repeated mating suppresses stress-responses of the PVN, in part by AR-mediated actions in the MPOA. Further, repeated mating results in higher AR density in the MPOA and the majority of AR-containing preoptic cells project to the PVN. In addition, since AR-containing cells in the MPOA are GABAergic, this may be one means by which repeated mating enhances the inhibitory effects of androgens in the MPOA, perhaps in androgen-sensitive projections to the PVN. These data demonstrate that repeated mating imparts neurobiological and physiological alterations in stress responses systems and an androgen-mediated mechanism in the MPOA regulates mating-induced stress buffering in the PVN. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2013. / November 5, 2013. / Androgen, Anxiety, Mating, Medial Preoptic Area, Stress / Includes bibliographical references. / Elaine Hull, Professor Directing Dissertation; Thomas Keller, University Representative; Carlos Bolaños, Committee Member; Mohamed Kabbaj, Committee Member; Michael Kaschak, Committee Member.