Within the framework of the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide, the acquired capability for suicide is viewed as the factor that differentiates individuals who die by suicide versus those who have the desire to die, but are unable to act on that desire. Both indirect and direct lines of research provide some validity evidence for the construct. However, to date there has been no research that programmatically evaluates the nature and measurement of the acquired capability for suicide. As such, the intention of the current project was to examine the factor structure of the Acquired Capability for Suicide Scale (ACSS), which is designed as a measure of the acquired capability, and develop a viable latent variable measurement model of the scale. To this end, we present data from three studies using independent samples of undergraduate participants at the Florida State University. In Study 1 we conducted a two Exploratory Factor Analyses. Retaining nine items from the original scale, we then replicated the resultant solution in Study 2, using Exploratory Factor Analysis in a Confirmatory Factor Analysis framework (E/CFA). Following this, in Study 3 we present findings from a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in a third independent sample. Overall results support a viable latent variable measurement model. We close with a discussion of limitations and recommendations for future directions. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2011. / August 3, 2011. / acquired capability, interpersonal theory of suicide, psychometrics, suicide / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas E. Joiner, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse R. Cougle, Committee Member; Richard K. Wagner, Committee Member.

Little is known regarding the mechanisms underlying the neurobiological consequences of antidepressant exposure during adolescence. Therefore, in this dissertation, I assessed the long-lasting effects of adolescent exposure to Fluoxetine (FLX), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, on behavioral reactivity to emotion-eliciting stimuli in adulthood using rodent animal models. To do this, in chapters two and three, male Sprague-Dawley rats and c57BL/6 mice are exposed to FLX throughout adolescence (postnatal days 35-49), and tested in adulthood (postnatal day 70+) on a battery of behavioral tasks designed to assess sensitivity to stress- (i.e., forced swimming and the social defeat procedure), and anxiety-inducing situations (i.e., elevated plus-maze, novelty induced hypophagia, and open field test). Because a proposed mechanism by which FLX exerts its therapeutic effect(s) has been linked to the modulation of intracellular signaling pathways involved in the regulation of cell survival, in chapter three, I also assessed how FLX exposure influenced extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK)-signaling within the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain. The VTA was selected given the role this brain region plays in regulating mood and motivation under normal conditions. FLX exposure during adolescence resulted in an enduring paradoxical behavioral response in which rodents exhibit a stress-resistant behavioral phenotype, along an increase in sensitivity to anxiety-inducing situations. In addition, a persistent decrease in ERK-related signaling was observed within the VTA of rats and mice exposed to FLX. Given that chronic exposure to FLX resulted in an enduring downregulation of ERK signaling, it was imperative to determine whether exposure to stress, a major predisposing factor for depression, would result in oppositional regulation of this signaling pathway. Thus, in chapters three and four I assessed the behavioral and biochemical effects of exposure to stress in adult rats and mice using complementary behavioral, molecular, and gene transfer approaches. Here, exposure to chronic unpredictable stress resulted in depressive-like phenotypes, including a reduced ability to experience pleasure (i.e., anhedonia, as inferred from the sucrose preference test) and increased vulnerability to subsequent stress (i.e., forced swim test and the social defeat procedure). This stress-induced behavioral profile was also accompanied by an increase in ERK and its related signaling within the VTA - biochemical results opposite to those observed after FLX exposure. The functional significance of this oppositional effect was further confirmed using viral vectors: increasing ERK activity within the VTA increased sensitivity, whereas decreasing ERK resulted in decreased sensitivity to stress. Together, the data presented in this dissertation strongly implicate ERK signaling within the VTA as a modulator of behavioral responsivity to stress and antidepressant efficacy in adolescent and adult rodents. Lastly, in chapter five, the potential clinical implications, as well as future directions of this work are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / September 2, 2011. / adolescence, anxiety, ERK, fluoxetine, major depression, ventral tegmental area / Includes bibliographical references. / Carlos A. Bolaños-Guzmán, Professor Directing Dissertation; Akash Gunjan, University Representative; Zuoxin Wang, Committee Member; Mohamed Kabbaj, Committee Member; Janet Kistner, Committee Member.

Relations between stimuli (contingencies, dependencies, etc.) provide valuable information about regularities and uncertainties in the environment. Statistical and associative mechanisms thought to be responsible for learning such information are commonly assumed to be passive and automatic. The feasibility of such learning mechanisms is questionable, however, because the magnitude of the possible associative links exceeds the neurological potential for stimulus relation encoding. Constraints are needed to limit learning processes to profitable stimulus information. The current research explores two such constraints. The first one yields successful learning of a relation between stimuli only when they are actively co-processed in a manner that adjoins them, for example, by means of a comparison. Secondly, relations between stimuli are better learned when they or (some of) their features are relevant to completing a goal directed task. These constraints provide and powerful and effective means to demarcate target information for learning processes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 30, 2012. / Associative Learning, Selective Attention, Statistical Learning / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael P. Kaschak, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce M. Menchetti, University Representative; Colleen M. Kelley, Committee Member; Walter R. Boot, Committee Member; Carol M. Connor, Committee Member.

The present study examined some specific mechanisms that might underlie the connection between alcohol and suicide risk. According to the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide, individuals who experience thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness and an increased ability and willingness to tolerate physical pain are at an elevated risk for a lethal suicide attempt. We examined this theory while also investigating possible mechanisms by which alcohol intoxication might increase factors associated with suicide risk. Specifically, we examined a leading theory of alcohol's effect on emotion, which suggests that alcohol can actually increase distress in certain situations. This, combined with alcohol's analgesic properties and ability to increase fearlessness suggest that alcohol intoxication could dramatically increase the risk and lethality of suicide-related behaviors. In the present study, we manipulated beverage (alcohol versus no-alcohol) and personality feedback (thwarted belongingness versus misfortune control) and measured tolerance for self-inflicted pain via a cold pressor. As predicted, results demonstrate that individuals who had their sense of belongingness thwarted and subsequently consumed alcohol demonstrated significantly higher self-inflicted pain tolerance than those in other groups. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / April 21, 2011. / alcohol, non-suicidal self-injury, pain tolerance, social rejection, suicide, thwarted belongingness / Includes bibliographical references. / Alan R. Lang, Professor Directing Dissertation; Dina J. Wilke, University Representative; Christopher J. Patrick, Committee Member; Jon K. Maner, Committee Member; Thomas E. Joiner, Committee Member.

Given the important role of contact in improving attitudes toward outgroup members, it is necessary to examine factors that reduce majority group members' likelihood of having contact with minority group members. Recent research illustrates the role of social contagion concerns (i.e., heterosexuals' concerns that contact with lesbians and gay men will result in being misidentified as homosexual) in heterosexuals' desire to avoid lesbians and gay men. One potential consequence for heterosexuals who are misidentified as homosexual is the potential loss of mating opportunities. The current work examined the role that mating motives play in social contagion concerns and heterosexuals' desires to avoid lesbians and gay men. Consistent with predictions, heterosexual participants whose mating goals were not being met reported greater contagion concerns than participants whose mating goals were being met (Study 1). Further, when mating motives were manipulated, heterosexual participants whose mating motives were activated reported a greater desire to avoid contact with a hypothetical gay/lesbian roommate than control participants (Study 2). This desire to avoid was especially pronounced in heterosexuals with high levels of general contagion concerns. The implications of these findings for inter-orientation contact are discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2011. / August 31, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Ashby Plant, Professor Directing Thesis; Jon Maner, Committee Member; Colleen Kelley, Committee Member.

Exercise motivated by unhealthy body image goals is a common feature of eating disorders. There is a lack of consensus about what constitutes unhealthy exercise, which has created difficulties for its assessment and likely contributed to inconsistent findings about unhealthy exercise. The purpose of the current study was to compare different definitions of unhealthy exercise on associations with disordered eating and to examine which definition best discriminates individuals with eating disorder diagnoses from non-eating disorder controls. A secondary aim of the study was to compare different definitions of unhealthy exercise as they relate to prevalence and gender distribution. Secondary analyses from an epidemiological study of health and eating behaviors were conducted using survey data from men (n=592) and women (n=1468). Results indicated that for both men and women, defining unhealthy exercise in terms of its compulsive and/or compensatory quality more accurately captured features of exercise associated with eating pathology compared to excessive quantity. Further, compulsive and compensatory aspects of unhealthy exercise are overlapping, yet distinct qualities, such that broadening the assessment of pathological exercise behavior to include measurement of compensatory and compulsive aspects of unhealthy exercise has incremental value. An updated definition of unhealthy exercise based on these findings is discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2012. / February 7, 2012. / disordered eating, eating disorder, unhealthy exercise / Includes bibliographical references. / Pamela K. Keel, Professor Directing Thesis; Edward M. Bernat, Committee Member; Lisa A. Eckel, Committee Member.

The externalizing dimension is viewed as a broad dispositional factor underlying risk for numerous disinhibitory (impulse control) disorders. Prior work has documented deficits in event-related brain potential (ERP) responses in individuals prone to externalizing problems, including the error-related negativity (ERN) and P300/P3. Since the ERN reflects the extent to which individuals monitor their own behavior, it appears to have the most direct relevance to externalizing behaviors. The ERN literature suggests that high-externalizing individuals are deficient in internal self-monitoring (i.e., ERN attenuation) but appear relatively stronger (more normal) in monitoring external feedback about their performance (i.e., normal feedback-related negativity, or FRN, a measure highly related to ERN). In light of this relative strength in monitoring environmental feedback, the current study sought to determine whether the presence of meaningful feedback in a performance task could normalize the internal monitoring (ERN) of high-externalizing participants. Specifically, the current study measured ERP amplitudes in a reinforcement-learning task that provided meaningful performance feedback and was known to produce both ERN and FRN measures. In addition to evaluating externalizing proneness in relation to ERN and FRN, the response- and feedback-P3 were added as additional measures, based on a large literature that P3 is a reliable neurobiological marker of externalizing proneness. Interestingly, the ERN showed early attenuation in relation to externalizing proneness that normalized mid-way through the learning blocks, in combination with more pervasive (across time) impairment in the response-P3 (P3e). These findings indicate that externalizing-related ERN deficits are context dependent and extend a prior existing literature on stimulus-P3/externalizing relationships to the response-P3. Additionally, more fine-grained analyses of the cognitive processes occurring in the task than was done in prior published work and revealed several novel findings regarding separable measures that may reflect distinct components of learning and monitoring in this task. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / November 28, 2011. / Error-related Negativity, Externalizing, Feedback-Related Negativity, Impulse Control Disorders, P300, Reinforcement-Learning / Includes bibliographical references. / Christopher Patrick, Professor Directing Dissertation; Thomas Houpt, University Representative; Edward Bernat, Committee Member; Walter Boot, Committee Member; Janet Kistner, Committee Member.

Three experiments tested the effects of ego depletion on economic decision-making in the investment game. Participants completed a self-control task or simplified version not requiring self-control. Then participants divided $10 between themselves and another person. The ostensible other person received triple the amount given and could return any portion to the participant. Giving less money, and therefore not trusting the other person, is the safe, self-interested response. Participants who had exerted self-control and were depleted gave the other person less money than those in the non-depletion condition (Experiment 1). This effect, however, was only observed among participants who were told they would never meet the other person. Amounts given did not differ for depleted and non-depleted participants who expected to eventually meet the other person (Experiment 2). Additionally, depletion did not cause decreased trust when participants believed they were interacting with a person very similar to themselves (Experiment 3). The implication is that self-control facilitates trust and enables people to override uncertainty in favor of socially constructive actions, especially when there are no other situational cues that motivate people to prioritize collective (versus individual) outcomes. The decrease in trust observed among depleted participants was strongest among neurotics. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2012. / July 18, 2012. / cooperation, ego depletion, self-control, trust / Includes bibliographical references. / Roy F. Baumeister, Professor Directing Thesis; Jon K. Maner, Committee Member; Walter Boot, Committee Member.

Being reminded of a previous instance when encountering new items leads to a large memory benefit. However, little is known about what factors influence whether one will be reminded. In three experiments, I explored the influence of presentation rate (Experiments 1 and 2) and contextual factors (Experiment 3) on being reminded within classic A-B, A-D retroactive interference (RI) (Experiments 1 and 2) and proactive interference (PI) (Experiment 3) paradigms. Experiments 1 and 2 found evidence of presentation time affecting the likelihood of being reminded of a previous word pair for interfering items (A-B, A-D pairs) but not for repetitions (A-B, A-B items). Experiment 3 found evidence that changing the background context for individual items reduced remindings for both interfering items (A-B, A-D pairs) and repetitions (A-B, A-B items). Results indicate that both presentation rate and context influence whether one is reminded. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 28, 2013. / change detection, context, interferene, memory, recursive reminding, reminding / Includes bibliographical references. / Colleen Kelley, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael Kaschak, Committee Member; Sara Hart, Committee Member.

Feeling powerful or powerless can affect the manner in which one processes persuasive appeals. Previous research suggests that people who lack power tend to engage in careful, deliberate forms of cognition. In contrast, high power has been linked with cognitive strategies, such as stereotyping and heuristic processing, that emphasize speed and simplicity over accuracy. Thus, previous research suggests that powerful people may be persuaded by the heuristic content of appeals more than powerless people, because powerful people may not evaluate those appeals as carefully. The current research, in contrast, presents a more nuanced set of predictions regarding the effects of power on heuristic processing: individuals primed with high versus low power will respond differentially to two commonly used persuasive appeals that rely on different heuristic cues: social proof and scarcity. The social proof appeal is based on making a product or behavior seem popular and consistent with social norms. The scarcity principle is based on making a product seem rare or exclusive. Two studies test the prediction that people primed with high power will be especially responsive to scarcity appeals, whereas people primed with low power will be especially responsive to social proof appeals. In Study 1, participants were primed with high or low power and read a review of a restaurant that contained either a scarcity appeal or a social proof appeal. Participants primed with high power were susceptible to the scarcity appeal, whereas participants primed with low power were susceptible to the social proof appeal. Study 2 tested two possible mechanisms underlying those effects: affiliative motivation and BIS/BAS engagement. Contrary to predictions, no effect of the power prime was found on either of those two putative mediating variables. However, relationships between the mediators and persuasion were observed. As predicted, high levels of affiliative motivation and relatively high BIS were both linked with heightened susceptibility to the social proof appeal. Directions for future research on power and persuasion are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 13, 2013. / Affiliation, BIS/BAS, Dominance, Heuristics, Persuasion, Power / Includes bibliographical references. / Jon Maner, Professor Directing Dissertation; Neil Jumonville, University Representative; Mike Kaschak, Committee Member; Mary Gerend, Committee Member; Ashby Plant, Committee Member.