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CD20 is a 35kDa surface antigen expressed on B cells from the early pre-B stage through the mature B stage. Moreover, the CD20 antigen is found on a majority of B cell malignancies. Rituximab is a chimeric anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody which has been extensively used alone or in combination in the treatment of CD20+ B cell malignancies including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (NHL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), as well as in the treatment of numerous autoimmune disorders. Despite its emerging use in the clinic, 30% to 50% of patients with low-grade NHL exhibit no clinical response to Rituximab. Previous work to elucidate the mechanisms of Rituximab resistance has established that antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is important as a predominant mechanism of lymphoma cell clearance and that Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) are critical for the in vivo actions of Rituximab in NHL. Natural killer group 2D, NKG2D is a major activating receptor on T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. The NKG2D–ligand (NKG2D-L) interaction triggers an activating signal which results in cytotoxic lysis of the cell expressing the ligand. One potential ligand for murine NKG2D is the retinoic acid early 1β (Rae-1β) protein which is expressed during cellular stress and has a high affinity for the NKG2D receptor in mice. We have recently shown that an anti-HER2-IgG3 fused to murine NKG2D Ligand, Rae1β inhibited HER2+ tumor growth significantly more than Herceptin alone. Similarly, our objective is to enhance the performance of anti-CD20 directed therapy through activation of NK cells by an anti-CD20 antibody encoding the same NK activation ligand. Previous results with anti-HER2-IgG3-Raelβ led us to hypothesize that a CD20 specific fusion protein will bind to CD20 expressing tumor cells and deliver an activation signal to local NKG2D receptors on effector cells triggering a non-FcγR dependent anti-tumor response. Here we show that anti-CD20-NKG2D-L can be synthesized and tested for its ability to bind human CD20 and activate NK cells through the NKG2D receptor in vitro.

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Immunological profile of multiple sclerosis patients Abstrakt Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune neurodegenerative disease affecting predominantly the white matter of the CNS and the spinal cord. The mechanism of disease progression is not yet fully understood. In this study we focused on a comparison of selected immunological markers between patients with multiple sclerosis who were naïve newly diagnosed, subsequently treated with Avonex (IFNβ1a) and healthy donors. The T cells (particulary cytotoxic CD8+ T cells) are the major population involved in pathogenesis of MS causing the demyelization of axons. Subpopulation of CD161+ Th cells has a potential to be very important in this process. We focused on the role of NK cells phenotype and function in autoimmune response of patients and their changes during the therapeutic intervention. Using flow cytometry we analyzed the distribution of NK, NKT, T cells and monocytes with special regard to the expression of CD161 and NKG2D molecules on their surface. We observed increase counts of CD161+ cells in subpopulations NK CD56bright , NK CD56dim , Th, Tc CD8bright , Tc CD8dim and decrease counts of NKG2D+ cells in subpopulations NK CD56bright , NK CD56dim , NKT, Th, Tc CD8bright , Tc CD8dim and monocytes. The decreased cytotoxic activity of NK cells in naïve MS...

NK cells, which are part of the innate immune system, are increasingly gaining attention, especially due to their cytotoxic ability to kill tumor cells of certain lines and certain viral, bacterial or parasitic infestation of the body. They lay a role in organ transplantation, the fight against HIV and other autoimmune diseases. NK cells have been studied since the 70th of the 20th century, but the structures and physiological ligands of their receptors remain only partially understood, as does the exact role of these cells in the organism. They communicate with others through their receptors, that recognize the lack of expression of MHC class I glycoproteins on the surface of target cells, thereby preventing cell recognition by cytotoxic lymphocytes. This diploma thesis deals with the research of receptors from cattle (Bos taurus), which is not a traditional laboratory animal and my task was to contribute to research of the structure of this group of proteins. I dealt with the recombinant production of some of the most important representatives of NK receptors CD69, NKRP1 and NKG2D in bacterial cells. The findings published in this thesis are a continuation of my bachelor thesis and together can be beneficial for further research into structural proteins and thus may help as in veterinary medicine...

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a worldwide problem representing one of the most prevalent autoimmune diseases in the world. Despite the commonness of the disea- se, its pathogenesis has not been fully described. Immune cells ranging from antigen- presenting cells to T, B and NK cells playing various roles participate in the rheumatic process. In this work we concentrated on NK cells expressing a repertoire of activating and inhibitory receptors which influence their function in health and disease. We focused on the analysis of NK cell function and described its possible modulation by rheumatic autoantigens and multivalent glycodendrimers bearing 4 (GN4C) or 8 (GN8P) N-acetyl glucosamine moieties. The effect on NK cells and the glycosylation pathways was further studied in vitro. Finally, an in vivo study was performed on an animal model of RA - col- lagen-induced arthritis (CIA) to assess the effect of the compounds on clinical develop- ment of the disease and selected immune parameters. Comparison of NK cell cytotoxicity in patients suffering from RA, other inflam- matory diseases and healthy donors showed its impairment particularly in RA patients. Peripheral blood NK cells reacted to GN8P glycoconjugate by inhibition of their effector function in CD161 high-expressing samples. The MGAT5...

Although not obvious at first sight, several parallels can be drawn between pregnancy andcancer. Many proliferative, invasive and immune tolerance mechanisms that supportnormal pregnancy are also exploited by malignancies to establish a nutrient supply andevade or edit the immune response of the host. The human placenta, of crucial importancefor pregnancy success, and its main cells, the trophoblast, share several features withmalignant cells such as high cell proliferation rate, lack of cell-contact inhibition andinvasiveness. Both in cancer and in pregnancy, the immune defense mechanisms,potentially threatening the survival of the tumor or the fetus, are progressively blunted oreven turned into tumor- or pregnancy-promoting players. Amongst immune mechanisms that are meant to protect the host from cancer and can be apotential threat to the fetus, the NKG2D receptor-ligand system stands out as the mostpowerful, stress-inducible “danger detector” system that comprises the activating NK cellreceptor NKG2D and its ligands, the MIC (MHC class I Chain-related proteins A and B)and ULBP (UL-16 Binding Proteins) families. It is the major cytotoxic mechanism in thebody promoting surveillance and homeostasis. In the present thesis we investigate theNKG2D receptor-ligand system in human early normal pregnancy and in theleukemia/lymphoma cell lines Jurkat and Raji and ask the questions “How is the NKG2Dreceptor-ligand system functioning in pregnancy and tumor? How is the danger of cytotoxicattack of the fetus avoided? Why is the immunosurveillance function compromised incancer patients?” We developed a method to isolate and culture villous trophoblast from early human normalplacenta and used it to study the NKG2D receptor-ligand system. We discovered that theNKG2D ligand families of molecules MICA/B and ULBP1-5 are constitutively expressedby the syncytiotrophoblast of the chorionic villi. Using immnunoelectron microscopy, westudied the expression of these molecules at the subcellular level and could show for thefirst time that they are preferably expressed on microvesicles in multivesicular bodies(MVB) of the late endosomal compartment and are secreted as exosomes. Exosomes arenanometer sized microvesicles of endosomal origin, produced and secreted by a great7variety of normal and tumor cells. The exosomes are packages of proteins and ribonucleicacids that function as “mail” or “messengers” between cells conveying different biologicalinformation. We isolated and studied exosomes from placental explant cultures. We foundthat they carry NKG2D ligands on their surface and are able to bind and down-regulate thecognate receptor on NK-, CD8+ and <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cgamma" /><img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cdelta" />T cells. The down-regulation selectively causedimpairment of the cytotoxic response of the cells but did not affect their lytic ability asmeasured by perforin content and gene transcription. Thus, the NKG2D ligand-bearingexosomes suppress the cytotoxic activity of the cells in the vicinity of the placenta, leavingtheir cytolytic machinery intact, ready to function when the cognate receptor isrestored/recycled. These findings highlight the role of placental exosomes in the fetalmaternalimmune escape and support the view of placenta as an unique immunomodulatoryorgan. Next, we studied the expression and exosomal release of NKG2D ligands by tumor cellsusing the leukemia cell lines Jurkat and Raji as a tumor model. We found that NKG2Dligand-bearing exosomes with similar immunosuppressive properties as placental exosomesare constitutively secreted by the tumor cells, as a mechanism to blunt the cytotoxicresponse of the immune cells and thus protect themselves from cytotoxic attack by the host.Interestingly, we found that thermal- and oxidative stress up-regulates the exosomesecretion and the amount of exosome-secreted NKG2D ligands. Our results imply thattumor therapies that cause stress-induced damage, such as thermotherapy and stripping ofoxygen supply to the tumor, might have a previously unrecognized side effect causingenhanced exosome production and secretion, which in turn suppresses the natural antitumorimmune response and thus should be taken into account when designing an optimaltherapy of cancer patients. In conclusion, we describe a novel stress-inducible mechanism shared by placenta andtumors as an immune escape strategy. We found that placenta- and tumor-derived NKG2Dligand-bearing exosomes can suppress immune responses to promote the survival and wellbeing of the fetus or the tumor. Our work comprises an important contribution to theelucidation of the NKG2D ligand-receptor system and its mode of operation in the humanbody and opens new perspectives for designing novel therapies for infertility and cancer.

The functions of the immune system include immunosurveillance of transformed cells, i.e., the ability to eliminate these cells before they become harmful to the organism. If the transformed cells succeed to escape the immune system surveillance, an oncological disease develops. The tumour immunotherapy aims to stimulate the immune system mechanisms to fight against the tumour. Lately, there's an interest in using NK cells in the immunotherapy of tumours. These cells appertain to the innate immune system and participate in immunosurveillance. When an NK cell encounters a target cell, its activation depends on the integration of signals from the surface activating and inhibiting receptors which bind ligands on the surface of the target cell. Upon activation, NK cell exhibits a cytotoxic response against the target cell. The use of NK cells in immunotherapy includes, among others, the testing of bispecific fusion proteins which can bind a tumour surface antigen by one part and NK cell activating receptor by the other part. Thus, these fusion proteins mediate a contact between both cells and trigger the cytotoxic response. This work presents a preparation of bispecific fusion proteins which consist of an activating ligand MICA (for the receptor NKG2D) or B7H6 (for the receptor NKp30), and a nanobody...

The mammalian pregnancy comprises a challenge to the maternal immune system since the fetus is semi-allogeneic and could thus be rejected. Pregnancy success is associated with the placenta that is not only essential for oxygen supply, nourishment and pregnancy hormones but also plays a role in the protection of the fetus against maternal immunologic attack. The aim of the current studies was to elucidate the role of human placenta as an immunomodulatory organ with a special focus on placental exosomes as vehicles for establishment of maternal tolerance to the fetus. We discovered that the syncytiotrophoblast in human normal pregnancy constitutively produces and secretes exosomes. Exosomes are 30-100 nanometer-sized membrane vesicles of endosomal origin that convey intercellular communication. Exosomes are produced and released through the endosomal compartment and reflect the type and the activation state of the cells that produce and secrete them. They carry cytosolic and membrane-bound proteins and nucleic acids and can influence and re-program recipient cells. Depending on their interactions with cells of the immune system they can be divided into immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive. We developed methods for isolation and culture of trophoblast and placental explants from human normal first trimester pregnancy and isolated exosomes from the culture supernatants.  These exosomes were characterized biochemically and functionally regarding mechanisms with potential importance in the establishment of maternal tolerance towards the fetus. The following aspects were studied: 1) exosomal modulation of the NKG2D receptor-ligand system, a major cytotoxic pathway for NK- and cytotoxic T cells and thus potentially dangerous to the fetus; 2) placental exosome-mediated apoptosis of activated immune effector cells; and 3) Foxp3-expressing T regulatory cells in human pregnant uterine mucosa, the decidua. Using immuno electron microscopy we show that human early syncytiotrophoblast constitutively expresses the stress-inducible NKG2D ligands MICA/B and ULBP1-5, and the apoptosis inducing molecules FasL and TRAIL. While MICA/B were expressed both on the cell surface and intracellularly on the limiting membrane of multivesicular bodies (MVB) and on exosomes, the ULBP1-5, FasL and TRAIL  were solely  processed through the MVB of the endosomal compartment and secreted on exosomes. The NKG2D ligand-expressing placental exosomes were able to internalize the cognate receptor from the cell surface of activated NK- and T cells thus down regulating their cytotoxic function. In our studies of apoptosis we found that placental exosomes carry the proapoptotic ligands FasL and TRAIL in their active form as a hexameric complex of two homotrimeric molecules, required for triggering of the apoptotic signaling pathways. This finding was supported by the ability of isolated placental FasL/TRAIL expressing exosomes to induce apoptosis in activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and Jurkat T cells. Additionally, we studied Foxp3-expressing T regulatory (Treg) cells in paired human decidual and blood samples from pregnant women compared to non-pregnant controls. The CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Treg cells were 10 fold enriched in the decidual mucosa compared to peripheral blood of pregnant women and non-pregnant controls. We discovered a pool of Foxp3-expressing, CD4+CD25- cells in human decidua, a phenotype consistent with naïve/precursor Foxp3+ Treg cells. These results suggest local enrichment of Treg cells in decidua of normal pregnancy. Furthermore, we have results indicating that the exosomes, isolated from placental explant cultures, carry PD-L1 and TGFβ on their surface, molecules known to promote induction of Treg cells. Taken together, our results provide evidence that placental exosomes are immunosuppressive and underline their role in the maternal immune modulation during pregnancy. The constitutive production and secretion of immunosuppressive placental exosomes create a protective exosomal gradient in the blood surrounding the feto-placental unit. This “cloud of immunosuppressive exosomes” conveys immunologic privilege to the developing fetus and thus contributes to the solution of the immunological challenge of mammalian pregnancy.