Masters of Art / Diversifying livelihoods has over the last two decades been identified as an important theme in the development work, particularly concerning the poverty reduction agenda. In the developing world, farm households, urged on by their survival instinct, diversify away from traditional subsistence agriculture to the production of high-value crops and at other times engage in off-farm and non-farm activities. This has become necessary due to the failures of agriculture to guarantee farm households sustainable livelihoods and improve their welfare. In sub-Saharan Africa, diversification is a vital instrument for reducing rural people’s risk to poverty. In recent years, however, diversification has been closely linked to food security. This is due to the fact that chronic food insecurity and its accompanying vulnerabilities continue to thwart poverty reduction efforts in the developing world. Paradoxically, whereas available statistics suggests that there is enough food to feed everyone, close to 900 million of the world’s population is still food insecure. By implication, the food security challenge hinge on ‘access’ rather than food availability. In sub-Saharan Africa and for that matter Northern Ghana, the phenomenon is quite pervasive, often affecting rural farm households. This signals one thing – a travesty to the existence of international human rights frameworks. Already, available empirical studies on the extent to which diversification amongst farm households impact on assuring household food security have revealed mixed results and are silent on the gender consequences. Using World Food Programme’s 2012 Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis survey conducted in northern Ghana and an ordinary least squares estimator, this study sought to examine how livelihood diversification contributes to household food security and subsequently validate its effect for male and female-headed farm households in the Bole district of the Northern region of Ghana. Results from the study revealed a significant positive relationship between livelihood diversification (the number of livelihood activities farm households engaged in) and household food security (household food consumption score). Whereas similar result was observed for male-headed households, that of female-headed households was insignificant even though positive. Following this, the study proposes a two-fold policy strategy for optimizing the impact of livelihood diversification on guaranteeing food security amongst farm households in the case study district in particular and northern Ghana in general. Firstly, support for boosting smallholder agriculture should be pursued rigorously, taking advantage of programmes such as the Savannah Plan for Accelerated Growth. Secondly, sustaining, up-scaling and re-orienting programmes such as Rural Enterprises Project and creating the policy milieu for farm households to explore local opportunities like eco-tourism should be mainstreamed, taking into account concerns of gender.

Following the First World War, colonial policy in West Africa underwent a transition as British administrators began to adopt indirect rule reforms to help usher in peasant-driven agricultural development in Northern Ghana. This thesis addresses the impact of these important policy changes on women and children through a study of local colonial and indigenous responses to four bodily practices: female circumcision, human trafficking (female pawning and illicit adoption), nudity and prostitution. Although much has been written about colonial and post-independence legislation of the female body, especially the female circumcision controversy in Kenya and prostitution in the mines and cities of east and southern Africa, few historical studies have fully considered the role of West African development doctrine, or the importance of ‘tradition’ and ‘community’, in colonial policies affecting women and children in Northern Ghana. Through a Parliamentary inquiry in 1930, West African departments came to reluctantly engage with questions of women and children’s status. Collectively, they decided that a gradualist path which sought to preserve community or ‘tribal’ cohesion was preferable to legislation promoting individual rights and civil society. This thesis situates this reluctance to introduce potentially destabilizing legislation in the context of development doctrine in northern Ghana. This thesis focusses on the north-eastern borderland corridor of northern Ghana where in the 1930s anthropologists and district officials investigated questions of female circumcision and as a solution to Parliamentary inquiry, sought to encourage a milder form practiced in infancy, rather than adolescence. The refusal to legislate reflected West African officials’ privileging of ‘community’ over the ‘individual’ and was repeated in their responses to ‘undesirable practices’, including nudity, pawning, and in post-independence times, illicit adoption and prostitution. In exploring state officials’ handling of these practices in a gradualist manner, this thesis illuminates the connections between development doctrine and the role of the male colonial gaze in managing undesirable practices in north-eastern Ghana, West Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D, History) -- Queen's University, 2014-04-03 14:33:00.037

Shea butter production in West Africa has been dominated by women and Northern Ghana specifically is a leading global producer. This thesis explores women’s perceptions of power, control and agency in the Ojoba Women’s Fair Trade Co-operative in Upper East Ghana. I add to the literature on women’s experiences with and in fair trade. I examine how the shea industry and the co-operative provide a marketplace for women and a space for women to co-operate and resist power structures. I emphasize how the Western language of empowerment builds substantially from pre-existing women’s networks and labour sharing practices in the agricultural context. The thesis evaluates the factors within Ojoba that contribute to women’s empowerment. To be ‘empowered’ in Ojoba reflects a variety of understandings, experiences and locations. Indeed “women’s empowerment” may misrepresent how the women are capable of building a physical and social space of safety, debate and growth.

The efficacy of decentralised local governance to transform rural communities into vibrant modern communities has often been highlighted. The Constitution of Ghana lends a strong hand to decentralised local governance as key to achieving rural development and poverty reduction. Achieving the above is however premised on the basis that local authorities would function effectively; promote effective community participation; and are functionally autonomous. However, some conceptual and practical challenges appear to limit the achievement of the stated benefits of local governance in Ghana. This thesis seeks to examine the nature of local governance and how its function translates into rural community development. It responds to pertinent questions central to Ghana’s decentralisation. It questions the local community development initiatives implemented by local government institutions, by exploring perspectives on the usefulness of these initiatives to local communities. Further it explores how the participation of local communities is engaged in executing these initiatives; and thirdly, it investigates institutional capacities to effectively carry out the decentralised community development initiatives. The thesis sought answers by conducting in-depth and semi-structured interviews with 134 participants drawn from 32 local communities within three District Assemblies, and a variety of stakeholders including key local government actors, individuals, and groups from three Districts in Northern Ghana. The thesis argues that political, administrative and systemic deficits challenge effective local government function in Ghana. For instance, recent evidence points to the fact that regimes since December 2000 dwell on political gerrymandering to bolster their political fortunes, which further weaken existing local governments rather than facilitate their effective and efficient function. Further that, local governments are observed to work within a chaotic community development environment where initial development strategies where overly influenced by exogenous forces, which made them unrealistic to rural community development. Again, the findings suggests a history of decentralised local governance full of a continual tinkering and halfhearted implementation of the decentralisation process since colonial times. This is mostly to achieve well orchestrated political goals. This historical legacy stifles local governments’ capacities over time and also leaves mostly ineffective structures replete with opportunities for political favour and rent seeking behaviours. Evidently however, this has tendered to percolate present day systems and processes where local political elites seek to, and prosecute the political agenda of the national government instead of dealing with local needs. On the development strategies implemented by local governments, a penchant tendency to transplant national development plans as local development strategies on central governments’ insistence was discovered. Though a contradiction to the laid down local government development planning and implementation process, local governments follow through with this practice. Further, a historical legacy of powerful external multi-lateral stakeholders’ grips or influence of the local development agenda appears a paramount reason for the above, and this in real terms leads to a de-emphasises of home grown local development strategies. The implication is that unrealistic rural community development strategies perpetuate. This further leads to noted planning incongruence at the local level. Aside this, there is also an overbearing local political and administrative interferences, and manipulations which leads further to a ‘filtering’ of development strategies to meet national politically motivated strategies or interests. This notwithstanding, local communities have strong faith in local governments as viable community development agents. The findings further suggest local governments’ acknowledgement of the critical roles of active community participation in the local community development agenda. Yet again they struggle to apply the national development planning Act 1994, (Act 480), which holds the greatest promise to directly translate to effective participation. In the least, local governments preferred to consult and inform local community members. In the same vain, central governments some times implement community development initiatives within local government jurisdictions without consulting them. A chief factor which appears to work against direct local level influence of the development planning process is the existence of penurious institutions at the local level. Consequently an exercise of tokenism is thus promoted to satisfy requirements for effective local community participation. In most cases ultimate development decisions are taken by the management and political leadership and not in direct consultation with local communities. Notwithstanding the above, it appears that local governments’ institutional capacities to effectively deliver on their mandate appear potentiated when viewed from the extent of supporting legal and institutional frameworks which gives credence to local governance. Local governments possess a powerful list of constitutionally sanctioned guiding frameworks which should necessarily inure to their smooth operation. Ironically there are noted deliberate systemic and political processes which tend to constraint this smooth function. In the least central government deliberately keeps a functionally dependent relationship with local governments. One direct result of the subjection of local government within this perpetual highly dependent functional relationship is a continual blurring of roles. Local governments appear to be perpetually subjugated to functional obscurity by central governments through incomplete decentralisation, strained internal relationships, and unhealthy ‘politicking’ between District Assembly members and administrative staff to say the least. Although most decentralised departments appear to have competent technical staff, their function is limited because of numerical insufficiency as well as limited material and logistical support.

No description available.

Master of Science / Department of Agricultural Economics / Vincent R. Amanor-Boadu / Women represent approximately 50 percent of the active labor force in Sub-Saharan Africa. Even though women are involved in a variety of agricultural activities, they have limited access to resources and have restricted decision-making power compared to their male counterparts (FAO, 2011). These limitations and restrictions are likely to have a significant effect on women’s performance levels compared to men. The present research measures the gender-based performance differences, identifies factors that influence the financial performance levels, and factors contributing to generate disparities between male and female smallholders performance in northern Ghana. Data used in this study are from the Agriculture Production Survey (APS) focusing on the 2013-2014 cropping season. The study uses the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method to measure and decompose the gender performance gap in two parts: endowment effect and structural effect. Gross margin is used to measure farmer’s financial performance. The endowment effect is attributed to differences in the explanatory variables, and the structural effect is associated with differences in returns of the explanatory variables. Results from the study indicate there is a gender gap between male and female smallholder farmers with male farmers outperforming females by 46 percent. Land area had the largest significant impact on the explained part of the gender gap, followed by tractor service. The endowment effect portion of the decomposition models is accounted for 35 percent of the gender gap, and the remaining 65 percent is associated with the structural effect. The larger structural effect part suggests that developing programs to establish equality among male and female smallholder producers in terms of access to resources will not close the gender gap. Additionally, factors contributing positively overall to gross margin of smallholder farmers were land area, and tractor services and crops produced. Based on the results of this research, policymakers and agribusiness stakeholders may look to reduce the gender gap existing between smallholder farmers in northern Ghana by empowering women by providing them access to land area and tractor services. Further research into factors affecting the gender gap in financial performance in agricultural activities is warranted.

ABSTRACT: Background: Malaria is endemic throughout Ghana and continues to be a major public health concern especially among pregnant women and children under the age of five. The Ministry of Health (MoH) estimates that over the past ten years, there have been 2-3 million cases of malaria each year, representing 40 percent of outpatient cases, while severe malaria accounts for 33-36 percent of in-patients. Malaria also accounts for 25 percent of the deaths in children under the age of five (GHS, 2001). Correct identification of risk factors could focus interventions at reducing malaria mortality in children. Demographic Surveillance System (DSS) sites have been established and they generate high quality population based longitudinal health and demographic data. The DSS conduct Verbal Autopsies to determine probable causes of death. Objective: This study examines factors affecting childhood malaria mortality in Northern Ghana, using longitudinal data collected by the Navrongo DSS during the period 1995- 2000. It deals especially with the role of socioeconomic factors (mother’s education, family wealth index based on the possessions and housing characteristics and residence, and possession of bed net) and the demographic characteristics (child’s sex and age, and mother’s age). Design: Secondary data analysis of longitudinal data collected by the Navrongo Health Research Centre. Multinomial logistic regression was used to compare the relative risk in three groups of children i.e. those who died of Malaria and those who died of other causes to those who survived as base. Results: Overall, for the deaths due to malaria, older children (1-5years) had a higher risk (RRR 1.4, 95%CI 1.25-1.57 P <0.0001) of dying compared to the infants. Equally, children born of older mothers (maternal age at birth of child >30 years) had a higher risk (RRR 1.28, 95%CI 1.15-1.42 P <0.0001). However, maternal education and residence had a protective effect, with children born of mothers who had some education (RRR 0.79, 95%CI 0.67-0.93 P=0.004) and residing in urban area (RRR 0.61, 95%CI 0.46-0.82 P=0.001) having a lower risk. Similarly, those children whose families are in the highest wealth index had a lower risk (RRR 0.76, 95%CI 0.63-0.91 P=0.003). Interestingly, the same factors were associated with deaths occurring due to other causes, but with varying degree of association. Whereas sex of child was not associated with malaria deaths, being female offered a lower risk of dying from other causes (RRR 0.9, 95%CI 0.84-0.98 P=0.017). It was observed that children in the older age group (1-5 years) were at higher risk of dying (RRR 1.14, 95%CI 1.05-1.25 P=0.002) just as those born of older mothers (RRR 1.16, 95%CI 1.07-1.26 P <0.0001). Even in this group, maternal education (RRR 0.87, 95%CI 0.76-0.98 P=0.023), a higher wealth index (RR 0.87, 95%CI 0.77-0.99 P=0.032 and RRR 0.63 95%CI 0.54-0.73 P <0.0001 for the two highest categories of wealth indices respectively), and area of residence (RRR 0.67, 95%CI 0.55-0.83 P <0.0001) offered a reduction in the risk of dying. Conclusion: The study identified the risk factors (age and sex of the child and mother’s age, maternal education, wealth and residence of the family) associated with malaria mortality and other causes of death in childhood in northern Ghana and this should help formulate cost effective interventions such as health education.

Student Number: 0516329A - MSc research report - School of Public Health - Faculty of Medicine / In the face of diminishing traditional controls on adolescent sexual behaviour, parents are becoming the focal point of guidance on sexual issues. The main objective of the study is to establish if residing with one’s parents has any effect on one’s sexual behaviour among adolescents in the Kassena-Nankana District of Northern Ghana. A sample of 7056 adolescents aged between 10 and 24 years were interviewed between April and October 2003 while the 2004 household socio-economic data was used to generate a household wealth index. Females are less likely to have had sex (AOR 0.75; CI: 0.63; 0.88) and also less likely to initiate sex before age 16 (AOR 0.30; CI: 0.21; 0.43) compared to males. Living with one’s father only is associated with a 36% decrease in the likelihood of having had sex among males (AOR 0.64; CI: 0.42; 0.96) compared to living with both parents. Females living with neither parent were 76% more likely to have had sex than those living with both parents (AOR 1.76; CI: 1.21; 2.55). Discussion of sexual matters with parents increased the likelihood of initiating sex. Family structure is an important predictor of sexual behaviour among adolescents and therefore should be considered when designing and implementing interventions. Longitudinal and qualitative studies are recommended

The study was conducted in northern Ghana to determine the scope of male partner violence (MPV) against women, identify the factors associated with this problem as well as point out the health implications of MPV. In a sample of 443 married women drawn from outpatient populations across six district health centers we found that nearly 7 out of 10 women have experienced some MPV: 62% have experienced psychological violence; 29% have experienced physical violence; and 34% have experienced sexual violence. A multiple regression analysis showed that male controlling behavior, number of children, presence of concubines, partner appreciation, and very good health significantly predicted Total Violence. The results showed that the more controlling a husband is the more likely his wife is to experience severe violence and that more children in the marriage is associated with more violence for the women. Marriage duration was significantly positively correlated with violence, indicating that the longer the time since a woman got married, the more likely she experiences violence. Husband’s education was significantly negatively correlated with violence, indicating that husband education has a decreased effect on violence. Logistic regression and ANOVA models identified a number of socio-demographic factors as significant correlates of MPV. These include couple’s unemployment, particularly husband unemployment, being young – under 30 years and being younger than the husband, presence of concubines, being Muslim or Traditional, living in a rural setting, husband alcohol use, being a healthy woman, and not being appreciated by the husband. We found that MPV is associated with physical and mental health difficulties among women. Some 47 women reported having sustained multiple injuries, including sprains, broken bones and teeth, cuts, and burns. Mental health difficulties among these women included partner phobia, sleep deprivation, and thoughts of suicide. We make recommendations that call on government and other stakeholders to initiate policy that provides services to women experiencing MPV and that implements education and campaign programs to eventually eliminate MPV in Ghana generally.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential plant nutrient and is one of the most critical elements influencing crop production throughout the world. Phosphorus deficiency is widespread in most soils of northern Ghana, and ferruginous nodules contained in some soils in the region accentuate the deficiency problem because they act as P sinks. This research focuses on P fertility status of soils in landscapes common to northern Ghana. Three sites were selected for the study and were referred to as sites 1, 2 and 3. Soils in a catenary sequence from site 1 were sampled for detailed P distributions in profiles, and surface soils from the upper, mid and lower slope positions of the other landscapes (sites 2 and 3) were used. The nature of P in the soil fines and ferruginous nodules was investigated using a modified Hedley fractionation procedure. The objective was to quantify the labile and non-labile inorganic P (Pi) and organic P (Po) in relation to pedogenic weathering processes at different slope positions at site 1. A secondary objective was to assess the P distribution in the landscapes at sites 2 and 3. The largest P fraction in both soil fines and nodules at each site was resistant non-labile P forms. Primary P (Ca-P) decreased with depth in the profile at the upper slope position but it occurred in greater quantities in C horizons of the lower slope soils. Phosphorus sorption capacity of the soil fines and nodules was determined to predict the behaviour of P fertilizers in the soils. Phosphorus sorption by the soil fines increased to a maximum in the B horizon of each profile and a t-test showed that P sorption was similar in profiles at each slope position. The P sorption capacities of uncrushed ferruginous nodules varied according to their sizes. The small nodules were more reactive and sorbed more P than the larger sizes. Fractionation of P from the nonfertilized and fertilized soils at the end of cropping and anion exchange resin (AER) extraction, revealed that there had been redistribution of P into different fractions. A comparison of P fractions of the nonfertilized soils after the AER extraction with those of the native soil P showed decreases in some native labile and non-labile P fractions. This suggested that these P fractions could be available for plant uptake. Both 50% PAPR and SSP fertilizations increased the labile Pi and NaOH extractable Pi levels in the soils. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)