Fluorescence microscopy offers the opportunity to image noninvasively biological samples in real time. However, the phenomenon of diffraction limits the resolution of conventional fluorescence microscopes to submicrometer dimensions in both the horizontal and vertical directions. This limitation can be overcome by photoswitchable fluorescent probes able to undergo reversible saturable optically linear fluorescence transitions (RESOLFT). In this study, firstly, a photoswitchable fluorescent probe based on BODIPY fluorophore and Spiropyran photochrome were designed and its photophysical and photochemical properties were investigated in organic and aqueous environments. Also, its imaging with patterned illumination was showed by trapping them in PMMA matrix. Secondly, photochromic [1,3]oxazines with different substituents as well as polymers incorporating them were synthesized and their photochemical and photophysical properties were investigated. Thirdly, to improve the switching speeds and fatigue resistance of the BODIPY-Spiropyran conjugate, the photochromic part was replaced by [1,3]oxazines and dyads incorporating BODIPY fluorophore and [1,3]oxazine photochromes were synthesized. Lastly, a new strategy was designed to switch the fluorescence of fluorophores by a modular approach. It is based on photoinduced elongation of the absorption wavelength of a fluorescent chromophore with the aid of an appended photochromic auxochrome.

A new strategy was developed to switch the luminescence of semiconductor quantum dots with chemical stimulations. It is based on the photoinduced transfer of either energy from CdSe-ZnS core-shell quantum dots to [1,3]oxazine ligands or electrons from the organic to the inorganic components. Upon addition of base or acid, energy or electron transfer pathways respectively become operative, leading to changes in the luminescence of the nanoparticles. These changes are fully reversible and can be exploited to probe the pH of aqueous solutions from 3 up to 11 and this design can lead to the development of pH-sensitive luminescent probes for biomedical applications based on the semiconductor quantum dots. Secondly, an operating principle to transduce the supramolecular association of complementary receptor-substrate pairs into an enhancement in the luminescence of sensitive quantum dots was identified. This system is based on the electrostatic adsorption of cationic quenchers on the surface of anionic quantum dots. The adsorbed quenchers efficiently suppress the emission character of the associated nanoparticles on the basis of photoinduced electron transfer. In the presence of target receptors able to bind the quenchers and prevent electron transfer, however, the luminescence of the quantum dots is restored. Thus, complementary receptor-substrate pairs can be identified with luminescence measurements relying on this system and this protocol can be adapted to signal protein-ligand interactions. Thirdly, a photochromic spiropyran with dithiolane appendage to adsorb on the surface of cadmium sulfide system was designed. The properties of the resulting photochrome-nanoparticle assemblies vary significantly with the experimental conditions selected for the preparation of the inorganic component. Finally, photochromic materials based on the photoinduced transfer of electrons from CdSe-ZnS core-shell quantum dots to bipyridinium dications were developed.

6H-1,2-Oxazines were functionalised at the C-C double bond by 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions and halogenation reactions. The reactions were carried out with 6-ethoxy-3-phenyl-6H-1,2-oxazine, 6-ethoxy-3-ethoxycarbonyl-6H-1,2-oxazine and 6-ethoxy-3-trifluoromethyl-6H-1,2-oxazine. The cycloadditions of 6H-1,2-oxazines were performed with nitrile oxides, nitrile imines, nitrile ylides, diazoalkanes, azomethine ylides and a nitrone. High diastereoselectivity was observed, induced by the steric hindrance of the ethoxy group at the 6H-1,2-oxazines. The cycloadditions occur with high regioselectivity. In addition, the constitutions of the bicycles were predicted by the frontier-orbital model using the semi-empirical PM3-method, and subsequently compared with those of the isolated products. The low strength of the N-O bond of 1,2-oxazines can often be used for mild hydrogenolysis reactions, but the reductions of the biheterocycles obtained here were not selective and led in most cases to decomposition. For the derivatives of 3-ethoxycarbonyl-3a,7a-dihydro-4H-isoxazolo[5,4-d]-1,2-oxazine the conversion of the five-membered ring into cis-configurated α-hydroxynitriles (saponification and decarboxylation) was demonstrated. Finally, the 4-chloro- and 4-bromo-6H-1,2-oxazines were prepared in good yields. Investigations with palladium catalysed coupling reactions were initiated. The halogen of 4-bromo-6H-1,2-oxazines was substituted by the phenyl group of benzolboronic acid using the Suzuki method. / Im Verlauf dieser Arbeit wurden 6H-1,2-Oxazine an der C-C-Doppelbindung durch 1,3-dipolare Cycloadditionen und Halogenierungen funktionalisiert. Als Modellsubstrate für die 6H-1,2-Oxazine wurden 6-Ethoxy-3-phenyl-6H-1,2-oxazin, 6-Ethoxy-3-ethoxycarbonyl-6H-1,2-oxazin und 6-Ethoxy-3-trifluormethyl-6H-1,2-oxazin eingesetzt. Die 6H-1,2-Oxazine konnten bei den Cycloadditionen erfolgreich mit Nitriloxiden, Nitriliminen, Nitrilyliden, Diazoverbindungen, Azomethinyliden und einem Nitron umgesetzt werden, wobei die Ausbeuten stark variieren. Die Reaktionen verliefen mit hoher Regioselektivität. Durch die sterische Abschirmung der Ethoxygruppe an den 6H-1,2-Oxazinen (Briefumschlagskonformation der 6H-1,2-Oxazine und pseudoaxiale Ausrichtung der Ethoxygruppe) wurde ebenfalls eine hohe Diastereoselektivität beobachtet. Ergänzend wurden die Konstitutionen der Cycloaddukte mit der semiempirischen PM3-Methode auf Basis des Grenzorbitalmodells vorhergesagt und mit denen der isolierten Biheterocyclen verglichen. Die dargestellten Cycloaddukte sollten unter Ausnutzung der geringen Bindungsenergie der N-O-Bindung hydrogenolysiert werden. Die Reduktionen waren jedoch im allgemeinen nicht selektiv, so daß die Umsetzungen zu komplexen Produktgemischen führten. Für die 3-Ethoxycarbonyl-3a,7a-dihydro-4H-isoxazolo[5,4-d]-1,2-oxazinderivate wurde ferner der Abbau des Fünfringes (Verseifung und Decarboxylierung) in cis-konfigurierte α-Hydroxynitrile beschrieben. Die 4-Chlor- und 4-Brom-6H-1,2-oxazine konnten in guten Ausbeuten unter milden Reaktionsbedingungen dargestellt werden. Anschließend wurden mit den bromierten Verbindungen verschiedene palladiumkatalysierte Kupplungsreaktionen getestet. Durch die Methode von Suzuki konnte das Halogen der 4-Brom-6H-1,2-oxazine durch den Phenylrest der Benzolboronsäure substituiert werden.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 105-119).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2005. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 120-127).

6H-1,2-Oxazines were functionalised at the C-C double bond by 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions and halogenation reactions. The reactions were carried out with 6-ethoxy-3-phenyl-6H-1,2-oxazine, 6-ethoxy-3-ethoxycarbonyl-6H-1,2-oxazine and 6-ethoxy-3-trifluoromethyl-6H-1,2-oxazine. The cycloadditions of 6H-1,2-oxazines were performed with nitrile oxides, nitrile imines, nitrile ylides, diazoalkanes, azomethine ylides and a nitrone. High diastereoselectivity was observed, induced by the steric hindrance of the ethoxy group at the 6H-1,2-oxazines. The cycloadditions occur with high regioselectivity. In addition, the constitutions of the bicycles were predicted by the frontier-orbital model using the semi-empirical PM3-method, and subsequently compared with those of the isolated products. The low strength of the N-O bond of 1,2-oxazines can often be used for mild hydrogenolysis reactions, but the reductions of the biheterocycles obtained here were not selective and led in most cases to decomposition. For the derivatives of 3-ethoxycarbonyl-3a,7a-dihydro-4H-isoxazolo[5,4-d]-1,2-oxazine the conversion of the five-membered ring into cis-configurated α-hydroxynitriles (saponification and decarboxylation) was demonstrated. Finally, the 4-chloro- and 4-bromo-6H-1,2-oxazines were prepared in good yields. Investigations with palladium catalysed coupling reactions were initiated. The halogen of 4-bromo-6H-1,2-oxazines was substituted by the phenyl group of benzolboronic acid using the Suzuki method. / Im Verlauf dieser Arbeit wurden 6H-1,2-Oxazine an der C-C-Doppelbindung durch 1,3-dipolare Cycloadditionen und Halogenierungen funktionalisiert. Als Modellsubstrate für die 6H-1,2-Oxazine wurden 6-Ethoxy-3-phenyl-6H-1,2-oxazin, 6-Ethoxy-3-ethoxycarbonyl-6H-1,2-oxazin und 6-Ethoxy-3-trifluormethyl-6H-1,2-oxazin eingesetzt. Die 6H-1,2-Oxazine konnten bei den Cycloadditionen erfolgreich mit Nitriloxiden, Nitriliminen, Nitrilyliden, Diazoverbindungen, Azomethinyliden und einem Nitron umgesetzt werden, wobei die Ausbeuten stark variieren. Die Reaktionen verliefen mit hoher Regioselektivität. Durch die sterische Abschirmung der Ethoxygruppe an den 6H-1,2-Oxazinen (Briefumschlagskonformation der 6H-1,2-Oxazine und pseudoaxiale Ausrichtung der Ethoxygruppe) wurde ebenfalls eine hohe Diastereoselektivität beobachtet. Ergänzend wurden die Konstitutionen der Cycloaddukte mit der semiempirischen PM3-Methode auf Basis des Grenzorbitalmodells vorhergesagt und mit denen der isolierten Biheterocyclen verglichen. Die dargestellten Cycloaddukte sollten unter Ausnutzung der geringen Bindungsenergie der N-O-Bindung hydrogenolysiert werden. Die Reduktionen waren jedoch im allgemeinen nicht selektiv, so daß die Umsetzungen zu komplexen Produktgemischen führten. Für die 3-Ethoxycarbonyl-3a,7a-dihydro-4H-isoxazolo[5,4-d]-1,2-oxazinderivate wurde ferner der Abbau des Fünfringes (Verseifung und Decarboxylierung) in cis-konfigurierte α-Hydroxynitrile beschrieben. Die 4-Chlor- und 4-Brom-6H-1,2-oxazine konnten in guten Ausbeuten unter milden Reaktionsbedingungen dargestellt werden. Anschließend wurden mit den bromierten Verbindungen verschiedene palladiumkatalysierte Kupplungsreaktionen getestet. Durch die Methode von Suzuki konnte das Halogen der 4-Brom-6H-1,2-oxazine durch den Phenylrest der Benzolboronsäure substituiert werden.

Fluorescence-based imaging techniques provide a simple, highly sensitive method of studying live cells and whole organisms in real time. Without question, fluorophores such as GFP, fluorescein, and rhodamines have contributed vastly to our understanding of both cell biology and biochemistry. However, most of the fluorescent molecules currently utilized suffer from one major drawback, the use of visible light. Due to cellular autofluorescence and the absorbance of incident light by cellular components, fluorescence imaging with visible wavelength fluorophores often results in high background noise and thus a low signal-to-noise ratio. Fortunately, this situation can be ameliorated by altering the wavelength of light used during imaging. Near-infrared (NIR) light (650-900 nm) is poorly absorbed by cells; therefore, fluorophores excited by this light provide a high signal-to-noise ratio and low background in cellular systems. While these properties make NIR fluorophores ideal for cellular imaging, most currently available NIR molecules cannot be used in live cells. The first half of this thesis addresses the synthetic difficulties associated with preparing NIR fluorophores that can be used within living systems. Small molecule NIR fluorophores are inherently hydrophobic which makes them unsuitable for use in the aqueous environment of the cell. Water-solubility is imparted to these dyes through highly polar sulfonates, which subsequently prevents the dyes from entering the cell. The novel work presented here details vii synthetic routes to aid in the development of sulfonated NIR fluorophores, which can be delivered into live cells through the inclusion of an esterase-labile sulfonate protecting group. Application of these synthetic techniques should allow for the development of novel NIR fluorophores with intracellular applications. The second half of this thesis addresses the need for novel NIR imaging reagents. Although several classes of NIR scaffolds do exist, most NIR probes are derivatives of a single class, heptamethine indocyanines. The work described here increases this palette by displaying the ability of NIR oxazines to function as an imaging reagent in live cells and in vivo and as a molecular sensor of biologically-relevant environmental conditions. Combined, the work contained herein has the capacity to not only advance the current NIR toolkit, but to expand it so that fluorescence imaging can move out of the dark and into the NIR light.