This longitudinal study investigated how parent, child, and family characteristics influence each other during the transition to parenthood. Participants were 98 cohabiting couples who were expecting their first child. Couples participated in data collection during the third trimester of pregnancy and again when their children were one and two years old. This study aimed to understand how family dynamics and individual characteristics of parents and children influence child adjustment during the first years after the transition to parenthood, to explore the relationship between mothers’ and fathers’ parenting, and to clarify how mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of important family constructs are related during this important time. Key constructs are introduced including co-parenting alliance, parenting efficacy, temperament, ineffective parenting, and child adjustment. A review of literature aims to provide conceptual clarity among these interrelated constructs that are instrumental in early family life. Drawing from the literature review, a conceptual model grounded in family systems theory is introduced in which co-parenting, parenting competence, and child temperament predict parenting practices, which in turn interact with child temperament to predict child adjustment. Child adjustment was measured in terms of internalizing and externalizing behaviours as rated by parents. Ineffective parenting was measured in terms of self-reported lax and over-reactive parenting strategies. To investigate the relationships among mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of these variables, confirmatory factor analyses were used to test whether parents’ individual ratings on measures were indicators of a broader couple level construct. To explore the impact of parenting on child outcomes, models were tested looking at lax parenting, over-reactive parenting, and ‘see-saw parenting’, which occurs when parents use both lax and over-reactive strategies. Temperament was tested as a moderator of the effects of each of these parenting styles on child outcomes. Regarding significant findings, low parenting efficacy, difficult temperament, and over-reactive parenting were found to be the most important predictors of later behaviour problems for children, with some differences in predictors of internalizing and externalizing behaviours and some different risk factors for mothers and fathers. Ineffective parenting occurred more often for parents who perceived their infants to have difficult temperaments and for parents who felt less confident about their parenting skills. Some results were inconsistent with previous research findings. These discrepant findings are discussed. Additional exploratory analyses found that parenting efficacy mediated the relationship between difficult temperament and over-reactive parenting. Implications for research and clinical applications are discussed. / Graduate

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Children in low-income and ethnic minority families are more likely to be in poor health, which may impact physical and economic well-being in adulthood. This study explored how maternal depression and parenting efficacy were associated with child health outcomes in a sample of low-income African American and Latino families. Results demonstrated that children in optimal health were more likely to have mothers with high parenting efficacy and fewer depressive symptoms. Differences between African American and Latino families illustrated the importance of considering both socioeconomic and racial and ethnic disparities in child health simultaneously. Parent characteristics may be opportune targets for addressing child health disparities, and future research should focus on understanding these associations and identifying parent behaviors associated with child health.

The aim of this study was to develop, implement and evaluate a psycho-educational programme to enhance the efficacy of parents of adolescents. Thus, the research project can be identified as formative, evaluative research. To this end, an investigation was undertaken to determine how the efficacy of parents of adolescents could be enhanced through an understanding of: * the life phase of adolescence; * the life phase of parents of adolescents; * the role of parents of adolescents; * factors influencing the parenting of adolescents (e.g., generational effects and the influence of family structure on parenting); * the challenges facing adolescents and their parents which may hamper parenting efficacy; * factors which assist parents of adolescents to overcome challenges and improve their parenting efficacy; * parenting skills which foster parenting efficacy; and * the nature of a psycho-educational programme which could enhance the efficacy of parents of adolescents. A literature study provided the theoretical background to the development of the above mentioned programme. In the next phase of the study, a psycho-educational programme was developed based on the literature review, a study of similar programmes and a pilot study conducted with parents. The programme aimed at helping parents to become aware of their parenting practices, to encourage them to increase knowledge and understanding of themselves and of their adolescent children and to develop personal strategies and skills to cope with parenting challenges. The programme was implemented with a group of 21 parents of adolescents (five fathers and sixteen mothers) living in George, South Africa during sessions held once per week over a period of six weeks. Participants were divided into three groups: six single parents; eight parents of nuclear families; and seven parents from blended-extended families. Data was collected qualitatively during each meeting. In addition, focus groups were conducted at the end of the six weeks. The findings indicated that the programme enhanced the efficacy of the participating parents in supporting the development of their adolescent children. / Educational Studies / D.Ed (Psychology of Education)

The aim of this study was to develop, implement and evaluate a psycho-educational programme to enhance the efficacy of parents of adolescents. Thus, the research project can be identified as formative, evaluative research. To this end, an investigation was undertaken to determine how the efficacy of parents of adolescents could be enhanced through an understanding of: * the life phase of adolescence; * the life phase of parents of adolescents; * the role of parents of adolescents; * factors influencing the parenting of adolescents (e.g., generational effects and the influence of family structure on parenting); * the challenges facing adolescents and their parents which may hamper parenting efficacy; * factors which assist parents of adolescents to overcome challenges and improve their parenting efficacy; * parenting skills which foster parenting efficacy; and * the nature of a psycho-educational programme which could enhance the efficacy of parents of adolescents. A literature study provided the theoretical background to the development of the above mentioned programme. In the next phase of the study, a psycho-educational programme was developed based on the literature review, a study of similar programmes and a pilot study conducted with parents. The programme aimed at helping parents to become aware of their parenting practices, to encourage them to increase knowledge and understanding of themselves and of their adolescent children and to develop personal strategies and skills to cope with parenting challenges. The programme was implemented with a group of 21 parents of adolescents (five fathers and sixteen mothers) living in George, South Africa during sessions held once per week over a period of six weeks. Participants were divided into three groups: six single parents; eight parents of nuclear families; and seven parents from blended-extended families. Data was collected qualitatively during each meeting. In addition, focus groups were conducted at the end of the six weeks. The findings indicated that the programme enhanced the efficacy of the participating parents in supporting the development of their adolescent children. / Educational Studies / D.Ed (Psychology of Education)