This dissertation is composed of three essays, investigating two aspects of the role of agricultural sector in climate change mitigation: leakage and additionality. Leakage happens when mitigation policies reduce net GHG emissions in one context, but increase (decrease) prices, which in turn causes production (demand) expansion resulting in an offsetting rise in emissions elsewhere. The first essay documents an integration of a US domestic agricultural sectoral model and a global agricultural sectoral model, with the aim to deliver better leakage assessment. The second essay investigates the trend of US crop yield growth and its implication on the international leakage effect. We find that the slowdowns have occurred to the growth rates of most US major crops. The implementation of climate change mitigation strategies, such as the expansion of bioenergy production, causes demand for the agricultural sector to increase substantially. The new demand would cause noticeable leakage effect if crop yields continue to grow at the current rates. Such effect may be potentially alleviated by higher crop yield growth rates; but the extent of alleviation depends on the mix of technological progress obtained across crops as well. Additionality is often a concern in programs designed to incentivize the production of environmental services. Additionality is satisfied if payments are made to services that would not have occurred without the payment. However, because of the information asymmetry between service buyers and sellers, ensuring additionality poses a challenge to program designers. The third essay investigates how the pursuit of ensuring additionality would complicate environmental policy design with a theoretical model. Specifically, we examine 4 types of policy design, including 2 discriminating schemes and 2 simpler non-discriminating schemes. We found that under certain conditions, some of the non-discriminating schemes can be almost as good as the discriminating ones. Findings in this dissertation contribute to inform policy makers about the potential impacts of climate change mitigation policies in the agricultural sector and also help to improve understanding of environmental program design.

Conventional nonpoint source pollution policies encourage the adoption of conservation practices to reduce nonpoint source pollutants by paying a portion of the cost to install best management practices. Alternative financial incentive programs, such as payment for environmental services (PES) programs, aim to improve program effectiveness by paying directly for the quantity of environment services provided, but implementing PES programs to reduce nonpoint source pollution has been challenging given the costs and technical feasibility of measuring pollutant outcomes. Bioreactors, engineered sinks that convert biologically available forms of nitrogen into an inert form (N_2), have recently been proposed to treat and remove legacy nitrogen from springs (Easton et al., 2019). Since nitrogen removal can be directly measured, there is potential to implement an outcome-based PES program. Little information exists on the costs and risks sellers face under such a program or the impact of contractual conditions. This research applies Monte Carlo simulation to a case study bioreactor in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed to estimate the financial risks and rewards to N removal service providers under different outcome-based PES contractual conditions. Results indicate that under a fifteen-year contract term and price of $25/lb/yr of nitrogen removal, outcome-based PES for denitrifying bioreactors has a high chance of generating positive financial outcomes for a commercial size case study bioreactor that removes an average of 1,279 lbs of N annually. / Master of Science / Conventional policies to reduce diffuse water pollutants encourage the adoption of conservation practices to reduce diffuse water pollutants by paying a portion of the cost to install remedial practices or technologies. Payment for environmental services (PES) programs, an alternative to conventional policies, aims to improve program effectiveness by paying directly for the quantity of environment services provided. However, implementing PES programs to reduce diffuse water pollution has been challenging given the costs and technical feasibility of measuring pollutants and outcomes of remedial efforts. Bioreactors, engineered sinks that convert the diffuse water pollutant nitrogen into a non-pollutive form, have recently been proposed to remove legacy nitrogen from springs (Easton et al., 2019). Using bioreactors, nitrogen removal can be directly measured, so there is potential for an outcome-based PES program. Little information exists on the costs and risks sellers face under such a program or the impact of contractual conditions. This research applies financial simulation to a case study bioreactor in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed to estimate the financial risks and rewards to N removal service providers under different outcome-based PES contractual conditions. Results indicate that under a fifteen-year contract term and price of $25/lb/yr of nitrogen removal, outcome-based PES for denitrifying bioreactors has a high chance of generating positive financial outcomes for a commercial size case study bioreactor that removes an average of 1,279 lbs of N annually.

This thesis examines the feasibility of economic incentives for reforestation, with improved water quality being one potential benefit, in the Fond D’or watershed of Saint Lucia. Population growth, economic development, and the onset of climate change have decreased the environmental quality in Small Island Developing State (SIDS) while increasing risk to the islands’ water security. The unique topography and geology of Caribbean island nations contribute to the challenges of managing freshwater resources. The governments of SIDS often lack the human and financial resources to provide potable water for their citizens, as well as to monitor and enforce environmental regulations limiting land use in watersheds. Therefore, a new approach to watershed management in Saint Lucia is imperative for the provision of valuable ecosystem services at the local, regional, and global scales. Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are a promising approach to the protection and maintenance of public ecosystem services where there is little incentive for private landowners to provide them. The first article explores household willingness-to-pay (WTP) for reforestation in Fond D’or watershed. The contingent valuation method was used to obtain residents’ WTP for a hypothetical scenario in which an increase in water users’ fees are used to fund a program where farmers in the upper watershed are compensated for taking land near water sources out of agricultural production for reforestation. The findings from 294 household surveys provide a description of the state of water quality and quantity in the Fond D’or, domestic water uses and sources, as well as attitudes and opinions about current water service. Bivariate analyses were performed to identify underlying factors that influence WTP, revealing that increased WTP is not a result of higher education and income. Rather, residence in a particular community group likely influences opinions about water, ultimately shaping WTP. Lastly, I discuss WTP in terms of its potential contribution to a PES scheme in Saint Lucia; WTP by local beneficiaries represents one potential funding source for PES mechanisms as well as public support for environmental improvement programs. The second article describes a methodological approach to constructing a PES scheme in the Fond D’or watershed. Of the five environmental policy approaches— prescription, penalties, property rights, persuasion, and payments—payment is likely to be the most feasible method to influence private land management decisions for the provision of ecosystem services for the public good. This article draws upon existing PES schemes for hydrological services around the globe to provide key lessons for expanding the use of the instrument to Saint Lucia. I apply these lessons to the social, political, and institutional context of Saint Lucia, identifying opportunities for and challenges to developing local or regional payment schemes for ecosystem services in the Fond D'or watershed. I outline the steps to constructing a PES and recommend further research to Saint Lucian policymakers.

No description available.

Entre as alternativas para amenizar impactos negativos ao meio ambiente, decorrentes das atividades humanas, está a criação de áreas protegidas de preservação ambiental, como a Reserva Legal. O problema de pesquisa analisa a sustentabilidade ambiental, econômica e social da exigência de averbação de Reserva Legal e sua influência nas propriedades rurais, tendo como objetivo geral analisar as mudanças em curso e se a percepção dos proprietários frente a essa exigência é positiva, negativa ou não interfere nas suas decisões baseadas na sustentabilidade. Os objetivos específicos são analisar em cada propriedade, a sustentabilidade ambiental, avaliando a situação das áreas de Reserva Legal e as Áreas de Preservação Permanente, as mudanças no desempenho econômico dos principais sistemas produtivos e a sustentabilidade social, considerando os indicadores sociais das propriedades. Também foi pesquisada a aplicabilidade e aceitação por parte dos proprietários do Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais, além de identificar se o agricultor é favorável ou desfavorável à averbação de Reserva Legal e se a mesma foi realizada por livre e espontânea vontade ou para cumprir a lei. A metodologia do estudo foi qualitativa, consistindo em pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, além de pesquisa de campo. As principais técnicas de coleta de dados foram observação e entrevista, visando traçar um perfil dos informantes, interpretando o significado das suas representações e percepções. A amostra é constituída de quinze propriedades rurais com área de Reserva Legal já averbada e implantada, em treze municípios do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. A grande maioria dos entrevistados foi favorável com percepção positiva em relação à Reserva Legal. Os principais critérios determinantes à tomada de decisão, baseada na sustentabilidade, em relação à Reserva Legal, foram a necessidade e o desejo de preservar a natureza, possibilidade de remuneração e a postura afirmativa em relação à obrigatoriedade da lei. Dos quinze entrevistados, treze afirmaram que a participação dos agricultores na formulação das leis ambientais foi pouco democrática. Para a maioria dos respondentes, a implantação da Reserva Legal não trouxe nenhuma modificação significativa na renda da família, não interferindo na economia da propriedade e no sistema produtivo, embora muitos manifestem preocupação com a viabilidade econômica das propriedades menores. De modo geral, a exigência de Reserva Legal mostrou-se sustentável na dimensão econômica. Quanto à dimensão ambiental, pode-se inferir que a Reserva Legal nessas propriedades é sustentável, pois a mata nativa já existente tornou-se mais protegida com a averbação, ou então o proprietário efetuou o plantio de árvores nativas onde não era mata. Em termos de sustentabilidade social, não houveram modificações relevantes nas relações familiares, comunitárias e sociais com a implantação da Reserva Legal, a qual não parece ter gerado problemas sociais na região em estudo e nem aos seus atores. Os entrevistados, de maneira geral, não são contrários à Reserva Legal, mas gostariam ter mais informações, e também mais participação. Enfatizam que cada situação deve ser analisada caso a caso, considerando que desta forma mais agricultores estariam dispostos a implantar a Reserva Legal, mediante o Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais. / Among the alternatives to minimize negative environmental impacts caused by human activities, there is the creation of protected areas of environmental preservation, as kind of the Lawful Forest Reserve. The research‟s problem analyses the environmental, economic and social sustainability of the requirement of Lawful Forest Reserve endorsement on notary‟s office and its influence on the farms, with the general objective to analyze the current changes and if the farmers‟ perception of this requirement is positive, negative or doesn‟t have influence on their decisions based on sustainability. The specific objectives are to analyze in each farm, the environmental sustainability, evaluating the situation of Lawful Forest Reserve Areas and the Permanent Preservation Areas, the changes in the economic performance of the main productive systems and the social sustainability, concerning the farms‟ social indicators. Also was researched the applicability and acceptance of the farmers to the Payment for Environmental Services, beyond of identify if the farmer is favorable or disfavorable to the Lawful Forest Reserve endorsement on notary‟s office and if the same was performed by farmer‟s own free will or to comply with the law. The study‟s methodology was qualitative, consisting of documental and bibliographic research, beyond field research. The mainly data gathering techniques were the observation and interview, aiming to sketch a profile of the informers, interpreting the meaning of their representations and perception. The sample is formed by fifteen farms with Lawful Forest Reserve Areas already endorsed on notary‟s office and implemented, located in thirteen towns of Rio Grande do Sul state. The absolute majority of the interviewed people were favorable with positive perception regarding the Lawful Forest Reserve. The mainly criteria determinant to the decision making process, based on the sustainability, regarding Lawful Forest Reserve, were the need and the desire of nature preservation, compensation possibility, and the affirmative stance regarding the law‟s obligation. Thirteen of the fifteen interviewed people affirmed that the farmers‟ participation on the environmental laws formulation was few democratic. To the majority of the sample, the Lawful Forest Reserve implement did not bring any significant change on the family‟s income, did not interfering on the farm‟s economy and in the productive system, although many interviewed people express worry with the economic feasibility of the smaller farms. Generally, the requirement of Lawful Forest Reserve has showed to be sustainable in the economic dimension. About the environmental dimension, it can be inferred that Lawful Forest Reserve in these farms is sustainable, because the already existing native forest became more protected with the endorsement on notary‟s office, or then, the owner did the planting of native forest trees where wasn‟t forest. About social sustainability, there weren‟t relevant changes in the family, community and social relations with the Lawful Forest Reserve implement, which does not seem to have caused social problems in the studied region, neither to its actors. The interviewed people, generally, are not against of Lawful Forest Reserve, but would like to have more information about it, and also more participation. They emphasize that each situation must be analysed case by case, considering that of this way, more farmers would be willing to implement the Lawful Forest Reserve, through the Payment for Environmental Services.

Entre as alternativas para amenizar impactos negativos ao meio ambiente, decorrentes das atividades humanas, está a criação de áreas protegidas de preservação ambiental, como a Reserva Legal. O problema de pesquisa analisa a sustentabilidade ambiental, econômica e social da exigência de averbação de Reserva Legal e sua influência nas propriedades rurais, tendo como objetivo geral analisar as mudanças em curso e se a percepção dos proprietários frente a essa exigência é positiva, negativa ou não interfere nas suas decisões baseadas na sustentabilidade. Os objetivos específicos são analisar em cada propriedade, a sustentabilidade ambiental, avaliando a situação das áreas de Reserva Legal e as Áreas de Preservação Permanente, as mudanças no desempenho econômico dos principais sistemas produtivos e a sustentabilidade social, considerando os indicadores sociais das propriedades. Também foi pesquisada a aplicabilidade e aceitação por parte dos proprietários do Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais, além de identificar se o agricultor é favorável ou desfavorável à averbação de Reserva Legal e se a mesma foi realizada por livre e espontânea vontade ou para cumprir a lei. A metodologia do estudo foi qualitativa, consistindo em pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, além de pesquisa de campo. As principais técnicas de coleta de dados foram observação e entrevista, visando traçar um perfil dos informantes, interpretando o significado das suas representações e percepções. A amostra é constituída de quinze propriedades rurais com área de Reserva Legal já averbada e implantada, em treze municípios do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. A grande maioria dos entrevistados foi favorável com percepção positiva em relação à Reserva Legal. Os principais critérios determinantes à tomada de decisão, baseada na sustentabilidade, em relação à Reserva Legal, foram a necessidade e o desejo de preservar a natureza, possibilidade de remuneração e a postura afirmativa em relação à obrigatoriedade da lei. Dos quinze entrevistados, treze afirmaram que a participação dos agricultores na formulação das leis ambientais foi pouco democrática. Para a maioria dos respondentes, a implantação da Reserva Legal não trouxe nenhuma modificação significativa na renda da família, não interferindo na economia da propriedade e no sistema produtivo, embora muitos manifestem preocupação com a viabilidade econômica das propriedades menores. De modo geral, a exigência de Reserva Legal mostrou-se sustentável na dimensão econômica. Quanto à dimensão ambiental, pode-se inferir que a Reserva Legal nessas propriedades é sustentável, pois a mata nativa já existente tornou-se mais protegida com a averbação, ou então o proprietário efetuou o plantio de árvores nativas onde não era mata. Em termos de sustentabilidade social, não houveram modificações relevantes nas relações familiares, comunitárias e sociais com a implantação da Reserva Legal, a qual não parece ter gerado problemas sociais na região em estudo e nem aos seus atores. Os entrevistados, de maneira geral, não são contrários à Reserva Legal, mas gostariam ter mais informações, e também mais participação. Enfatizam que cada situação deve ser analisada caso a caso, considerando que desta forma mais agricultores estariam dispostos a implantar a Reserva Legal, mediante o Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais. / Among the alternatives to minimize negative environmental impacts caused by human activities, there is the creation of protected areas of environmental preservation, as kind of the Lawful Forest Reserve. The research‟s problem analyses the environmental, economic and social sustainability of the requirement of Lawful Forest Reserve endorsement on notary‟s office and its influence on the farms, with the general objective to analyze the current changes and if the farmers‟ perception of this requirement is positive, negative or doesn‟t have influence on their decisions based on sustainability. The specific objectives are to analyze in each farm, the environmental sustainability, evaluating the situation of Lawful Forest Reserve Areas and the Permanent Preservation Areas, the changes in the economic performance of the main productive systems and the social sustainability, concerning the farms‟ social indicators. Also was researched the applicability and acceptance of the farmers to the Payment for Environmental Services, beyond of identify if the farmer is favorable or disfavorable to the Lawful Forest Reserve endorsement on notary‟s office and if the same was performed by farmer‟s own free will or to comply with the law. The study‟s methodology was qualitative, consisting of documental and bibliographic research, beyond field research. The mainly data gathering techniques were the observation and interview, aiming to sketch a profile of the informers, interpreting the meaning of their representations and perception. The sample is formed by fifteen farms with Lawful Forest Reserve Areas already endorsed on notary‟s office and implemented, located in thirteen towns of Rio Grande do Sul state. The absolute majority of the interviewed people were favorable with positive perception regarding the Lawful Forest Reserve. The mainly criteria determinant to the decision making process, based on the sustainability, regarding Lawful Forest Reserve, were the need and the desire of nature preservation, compensation possibility, and the affirmative stance regarding the law‟s obligation. Thirteen of the fifteen interviewed people affirmed that the farmers‟ participation on the environmental laws formulation was few democratic. To the majority of the sample, the Lawful Forest Reserve implement did not bring any significant change on the family‟s income, did not interfering on the farm‟s economy and in the productive system, although many interviewed people express worry with the economic feasibility of the smaller farms. Generally, the requirement of Lawful Forest Reserve has showed to be sustainable in the economic dimension. About the environmental dimension, it can be inferred that Lawful Forest Reserve in these farms is sustainable, because the already existing native forest became more protected with the endorsement on notary‟s office, or then, the owner did the planting of native forest trees where wasn‟t forest. About social sustainability, there weren‟t relevant changes in the family, community and social relations with the Lawful Forest Reserve implement, which does not seem to have caused social problems in the studied region, neither to its actors. The interviewed people, generally, are not against of Lawful Forest Reserve, but would like to have more information about it, and also more participation. They emphasize that each situation must be analysed case by case, considering that of this way, more farmers would be willing to implement the Lawful Forest Reserve, through the Payment for Environmental Services.

Entre as alternativas para amenizar impactos negativos ao meio ambiente, decorrentes das atividades humanas, está a criação de áreas protegidas de preservação ambiental, como a Reserva Legal. O problema de pesquisa analisa a sustentabilidade ambiental, econômica e social da exigência de averbação de Reserva Legal e sua influência nas propriedades rurais, tendo como objetivo geral analisar as mudanças em curso e se a percepção dos proprietários frente a essa exigência é positiva, negativa ou não interfere nas suas decisões baseadas na sustentabilidade. Os objetivos específicos são analisar em cada propriedade, a sustentabilidade ambiental, avaliando a situação das áreas de Reserva Legal e as Áreas de Preservação Permanente, as mudanças no desempenho econômico dos principais sistemas produtivos e a sustentabilidade social, considerando os indicadores sociais das propriedades. Também foi pesquisada a aplicabilidade e aceitação por parte dos proprietários do Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais, além de identificar se o agricultor é favorável ou desfavorável à averbação de Reserva Legal e se a mesma foi realizada por livre e espontânea vontade ou para cumprir a lei. A metodologia do estudo foi qualitativa, consistindo em pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, além de pesquisa de campo. As principais técnicas de coleta de dados foram observação e entrevista, visando traçar um perfil dos informantes, interpretando o significado das suas representações e percepções. A amostra é constituída de quinze propriedades rurais com área de Reserva Legal já averbada e implantada, em treze municípios do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. A grande maioria dos entrevistados foi favorável com percepção positiva em relação à Reserva Legal. Os principais critérios determinantes à tomada de decisão, baseada na sustentabilidade, em relação à Reserva Legal, foram a necessidade e o desejo de preservar a natureza, possibilidade de remuneração e a postura afirmativa em relação à obrigatoriedade da lei. Dos quinze entrevistados, treze afirmaram que a participação dos agricultores na formulação das leis ambientais foi pouco democrática. Para a maioria dos respondentes, a implantação da Reserva Legal não trouxe nenhuma modificação significativa na renda da família, não interferindo na economia da propriedade e no sistema produtivo, embora muitos manifestem preocupação com a viabilidade econômica das propriedades menores. De modo geral, a exigência de Reserva Legal mostrou-se sustentável na dimensão econômica. Quanto à dimensão ambiental, pode-se inferir que a Reserva Legal nessas propriedades é sustentável, pois a mata nativa já existente tornou-se mais protegida com a averbação, ou então o proprietário efetuou o plantio de árvores nativas onde não era mata. Em termos de sustentabilidade social, não houveram modificações relevantes nas relações familiares, comunitárias e sociais com a implantação da Reserva Legal, a qual não parece ter gerado problemas sociais na região em estudo e nem aos seus atores. Os entrevistados, de maneira geral, não são contrários à Reserva Legal, mas gostariam ter mais informações, e também mais participação. Enfatizam que cada situação deve ser analisada caso a caso, considerando que desta forma mais agricultores estariam dispostos a implantar a Reserva Legal, mediante o Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais. / Among the alternatives to minimize negative environmental impacts caused by human activities, there is the creation of protected areas of environmental preservation, as kind of the Lawful Forest Reserve. The research‟s problem analyses the environmental, economic and social sustainability of the requirement of Lawful Forest Reserve endorsement on notary‟s office and its influence on the farms, with the general objective to analyze the current changes and if the farmers‟ perception of this requirement is positive, negative or doesn‟t have influence on their decisions based on sustainability. The specific objectives are to analyze in each farm, the environmental sustainability, evaluating the situation of Lawful Forest Reserve Areas and the Permanent Preservation Areas, the changes in the economic performance of the main productive systems and the social sustainability, concerning the farms‟ social indicators. Also was researched the applicability and acceptance of the farmers to the Payment for Environmental Services, beyond of identify if the farmer is favorable or disfavorable to the Lawful Forest Reserve endorsement on notary‟s office and if the same was performed by farmer‟s own free will or to comply with the law. The study‟s methodology was qualitative, consisting of documental and bibliographic research, beyond field research. The mainly data gathering techniques were the observation and interview, aiming to sketch a profile of the informers, interpreting the meaning of their representations and perception. The sample is formed by fifteen farms with Lawful Forest Reserve Areas already endorsed on notary‟s office and implemented, located in thirteen towns of Rio Grande do Sul state. The absolute majority of the interviewed people were favorable with positive perception regarding the Lawful Forest Reserve. The mainly criteria determinant to the decision making process, based on the sustainability, regarding Lawful Forest Reserve, were the need and the desire of nature preservation, compensation possibility, and the affirmative stance regarding the law‟s obligation. Thirteen of the fifteen interviewed people affirmed that the farmers‟ participation on the environmental laws formulation was few democratic. To the majority of the sample, the Lawful Forest Reserve implement did not bring any significant change on the family‟s income, did not interfering on the farm‟s economy and in the productive system, although many interviewed people express worry with the economic feasibility of the smaller farms. Generally, the requirement of Lawful Forest Reserve has showed to be sustainable in the economic dimension. About the environmental dimension, it can be inferred that Lawful Forest Reserve in these farms is sustainable, because the already existing native forest became more protected with the endorsement on notary‟s office, or then, the owner did the planting of native forest trees where wasn‟t forest. About social sustainability, there weren‟t relevant changes in the family, community and social relations with the Lawful Forest Reserve implement, which does not seem to have caused social problems in the studied region, neither to its actors. The interviewed people, generally, are not against of Lawful Forest Reserve, but would like to have more information about it, and also more participation. They emphasize that each situation must be analysed case by case, considering that of this way, more farmers would be willing to implement the Lawful Forest Reserve, through the Payment for Environmental Services.

No description available.

No description available.

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is a global carbon trading program intent on mitigating or reversing carbon emissions from forestry in the global south. REDD+ was negotiated at the 2005 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and is coordinated by the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), administered by the World Bank Group. In this project, I explore REDD+ activity in Costa Rica, drawing on Michel Foucault's concept of governmentality. Costa Rica became a participant in the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility in July of 2008. Since then, indigenous peoples throughout the country have contested the program. This project is a single-case study of the Bribri contestation of REDD+ schemes, one of the larger indigenous communities in Costa Rica. Bribri argue that REDD+ disrespects their worldview and further endangers their local rights to land and forestry. This project argues that REDD+ and Bribri have different perceptions of nature, enabling disagreement on REDD+ goals. Whereas REDD+ perceives nature as commodifiable for the purposes of neoliberal climate policies, Bribri express a spiritual, harmonious relationship with nature. I conclude by noting that REDD+ can pose negative implications for indigenous life and culture. This is not only because REDD+ draws external and domestic actors to land and forestry for incentive-based purposes. But also because REDD+ defines 'rightful behavior' among forestry resources, challenging indigenous conceptions of environmental management. However, the Bribri are resisting REDD+ imposition and, particularly, the program's external governing of indigenous behavior amongst forests. / Master of Arts