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The plant cuticle is a continuous extracellular protective layer covering the outermost surfaces of higher plants that are in contact with the surrounding atmosphere. The primary function of the cuticular lipid membrane, which is mainly composed of biopolymer cutin and cuticular waxes, is to protect the plant organs against uncontrolled water loss. The chemical composition and the biophysical properties of cuticular waxes affect the rate of water diffusion across the cuticle. Fruit transpiration plays an important role in the development and the maintenance of fruit quality. The fruit has been suggested to present better dehydration stress tolerance than the leaf. However, the differences in transpiration and the chemical composition of cuticular waxes between fruit and leaf have yet to be comprehensively investigated. The present study aims to investigate the water permeability and cuticular wax composition of fruit and leaf cuticles of a wide range of plant species and to elucidate the different roles of the cuticular wax components in the transpiration barrier. To address these objectives, fruit and leaf samples from 17 species were investigated. The cuticular transpiration of intact fruits and astomatous adaxial leaf surfaces and the minimum leaf conductance obtained by leaf drying curves for intact leaves were gravimetrically determined for a variety of plant species. The chemical composition of cuticular waxes of fruits and leaves was thoroughly analysed by gas chromatography with flame ionization and mass spectrometry. The water permeability of fruits ranged from 3.7 x 10-5 m s-1 (Prunus domestica subsp. syriaca) to 37.4 x 10-5 m s-1 (Coffea arabica), whereas permeability for leaves varied between 1.6 x 10-5 m s-1 (Cornus officinalis) and 4.5 x 10-5 m s-1 (Prunus domestica subsp. syriaca (L.)). The interspecies range of water permeability of fruits was significantly higher than that of leaves. Chemical analyses of the cuticular waxes demonstrated that fatty acids, primary alcohols, n-alkanes, aldehydes and alkyl esters were the predominant very-long-chain aliphatic compound classes of fruit and leaf surfaces. Sterols, such as β-sitosterol and campesterol, and triterpenoids, such as oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, α-amyrin and ß-amyrin, were the major cyclic compound classes in the cuticular wax membrane. The amount and composition of cuticular waxes of both fruits and leaves varied at an intraspecific level. There were no significant correlations between the total cuticular wax load or the individual cuticular wax composition and the water permeability of fruits or leaves independently or together. After combining the fruit and leaf data set, a significant correlation between the average chain length of very-long-chain aliphatic compounds and permeabilities was detected, i.e. the longer the average chain length, the lower the water permeability. Interestingly, n-Nonacosane (C29) was abundantly detected in fruit waxes of Rosaceae species. These fruits exhibited a relatively low transpiration level, which was very close to their leaf cuticular permeability. The present study suggests that the lower cuticular permeability of leaves, in comparison to that of fruits, may be attributed to the longer average chain length of aliphatic compounds. The accumulation of total wax, triterpenoids and aliphatic compounds may not contribute to the transpiration barrier directly. The present results are highly consistent with the previous model assumptions for the cuticular structure and transport barrier. Furthermore, this comparative study on leaf and fruit cuticles provides further insights linking the cuticular wax chemistry to the physiological properties of the plant cuticle. / Die pflanzliche Kutikula ist eine kontinuierliche extrazelluläre Schutzschicht, welche die oberirdischen primären Abschlussgewebe höherer Pflanzen bedeckt, die in Kontakt mit der umgebenden Atmosphäre stehen. Die primäre Funktion der lipophilen Kutikularmembran, die hauptsächlich aus dem Biopolymer Kutin und kutikulären Wachsen aufgebaut ist, besteht darin, die Pflanzenorgane vor unkontrolliertem Wasserverlust zu schützen. Die chemische Zusammensetzung und die biophysikalischen Eigenschaften von kutikulären Wachsen beeinflussen weitgehend die Geschwindigkeit der Wasserdiffusion über die Kutikula. Die Transpiration von Früchten spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Ausbildung und Beständigkeit von Fruchtqualitätsmerkmalen. Unterschiede in der Transpiration und der chemischen Zusammensetzung der kutikulären Wachse zwischen Frucht und Blatt sollten untersucht werden. Die vorliegende Studie zielt darauf ab, die Wasserpermeabilität und die kutikuläre Wachszusammensetzung von Früchten und Blättern aus einem breiten Spektrum von Pflanzenarten zu untersuchen und die verschiedenen Rollen der kutikulären Wachskomponenten in den Transpirationsbarriereeigenschaften aufzuklären. Um diesen Zielen näherzukommen, wurden Frucht- und Blattproben von 17 Arten untersucht. Die kutikuläre Transpiration von intakten Früchten und astomatären adaxialen Blattoberflächen ausgewählter Arten sowie der minimale Leitwert von deren Blättern, ermittelt durch Austrocknungskurven mit intakten Blättern, wurden gravimetrisch bestimmt. Die chemische Zusammensetzung der kutikulären Wachse von Früchten und Blättern wurde durch Gaschromatographie mit Flammenionisation und Massenspektrometrie nachgewiesen. Die Wasserdurchlässigkeit von Früchten reichte von 3,7 x 10-5 m s-1 (Prunus domestica subsp. syriaca) bis 37,4 x 10-5 m s-1 (Coffea arabica), während die Werte für Blätter zwischen 1,6 x 10-5 m s-1 (Cornus officinalis) und 4,5 x 10-5 m s-1 variierten (Prunus domestica subsp. syriaca). Der interspezifische Vergleich der Wasserdurchlässigkeit von Früchten war deutlich höher als die der Blätter. Chemische Analysen der kutikulären Wachse zeigten, dass Fettsäuren, primäre Alkohole, n-Alkane, Aldehyde und Alkylester die häufigsten sehr langkettigen aliphatischen Verbindungsklassen für Früchte und Blätter waren. Sterole wie β-Sitosterol und Campesterol und Triterpenoide zum Beispiel Oleanolsäure, Ursolsäure, α-Amyrin und ß-Amyrin, waren die wichtigsten zyklischen Verbindungsklassen in den kutikulären Wachsmischungen. Die Menge und Zusammensetzung der kutikulären Wachse, sowohl von Früchten als auch von Blättern, variierte auf intraspezifischer Ebene. Es waren keine signifikanten Korrelationen zwischen der Menge der kutikulären Wachsablagerung oder der kutikulären Wachszusammensetzung und der Wasserdurchlässigkeit von Frucht- und/oder Blattoberflächen zu erkennen. Wurden die Frucht- und Blattdatensätze zusammen untersucht, so war eine signifikante Korrelation zwischen der durchschnittlichen Kettenlänge von sehr langkettigen aliphatischen Verbindungen und der Permeabilität festzustellen, ging eine längere durchschnittliche Kettenlänge mit geringerer Wasserdurchlässigkeit einher. Interessanterweise wurden große Mengen an n-Nonacosan in Fruchtwachsen der untersuchten Rosaceae-Arten nachgewiesen. Diese Früchte zeigten ein relativ niedriges Transpirationsniveau, das sehr nahe an der Permeabilität ihrer Blattkutikeln lag. Die vorliegende Studie liefert weitere Belege dafür, dass der im Allgemeinen niedrigere minimale Leitwert von Blättern auf die – im Vergleich zur Kutikula von Früchten – längere durchschnittliche Kettenlänge der aliphatischen Verbindungen zurückzuführen ist. Die Anhäufung von Gesamtwachs, Triterpenoiden oder aliphatischen Verbindungen trägt nicht direkt zur Transpirationsbarriere bei. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse decken sich in hohem Maße mit den bisherigen Modellannahmen zur Struktur der Kutikula und der von ihr vermittelten Funktion als Transpirationsbarriere. Darüber hinaus gibt diese Vergleichsstudie über die Kutikula von Früchten und Blättern zahlreiche Einblicke, die dabei helfen können, die kutikuläre Wachschemie mit den physiologischen Eigenschaften der pflanzlichen Kutikula zu verknüpfen.

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This report reviews the state of the art with respect to permeability determination and sanitary landfills. Characteristics of the soil which determine the permeability are given. Processes which can change the permeability are discussed. Darcy's Law, the mathematical basis of permeability and its validity are discussed. Laboratory and field methods for determining the permeability are also discussed. Applications of determined permeability for design and management of landfills are also indicated.

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A series of hybrid inorganic-organic composites were fabricated from a functionalized fluorinated polyimide and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), tetramethoxysilane, methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMOS), and phenyltrimethoxy-silane (PTMOS) employing the sol-gel process. Polyimides were synthesized from 4,4'-hexafluoroisopropylidene dianiline (6FpDA) and 4,4'-hexafluoroisopropyl-idenediphthalic anhydride (6FDA) utilizing a solution imidization technique. The hybrid materials were synthesized by in-situ sol-gel processing of the aforementioned alkoxides and a fully imidized polyimide that was functionalized with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane. The gas permeability, diffusivity, and selectivity were evaluated for He, O2, N2, CH4, and CO2, while the physical properties of these hybrid materials were evaluated using several analytical techniques. The results from this study revealed that gas transport and physical properties were dependent on the type of alkoxide employed in the hybrid inorganic-organic material. Gas permeability was observed to increase with increasing gas penetrant size for MTMOS and PTMOS based hybrids, while TEOS based hybrids decreased gas permeability at all compositions. In general, MTMOS based hybrid materials had the largest increases in permeability, which was attributed to an increase in free volume. The TEOS based hybrid materials had the largest decreases in permeability, while PTMOS based hybrid materials had performance in between these alkoxides. Decreased permeability for the TEOS based hybrids was attributed to the formation of lower permeable material at a particle interface and coupled with increasing tortuosity. Results of PALS studies suggested that there was an increase in free volume and pore size for MTMOS based hybrids, while both TEOS and PTMOS based hybrids had decreases in both average pore size and free volume. The temperature dependence of permeation, diffusivity, and sorption were evaluated from 35oC to 125oC. These results suggested that there was a decrease in solubility for all hybrids employed in this study. Furthermore, increases in permeability for the MTMOS based hybrids were created by increased penetrant diffusion. Physical property studies revealed that the type of inorganic material incorporated into the hybrid influences the degree of swelling, bulk density, Tg, and thermal stability. Hybrid materials were also created employing 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid (DABA) in the synthesis of modified 6FDA-6FpDA polyimides in order to evaluate how improvements in inorganic and polymer compatibility influenced the gas transport properties. From this separate study, it was found that increases in both permeability and selectivity were possible. The mechanism attributed to this simultaneous increase in permeability and selectivity was the formation of a more permeable and selective interphase at the interface of an inorganic particle and the polymer matrix. In addition to these studies, 6FDA-6FpDA polyimide molecular weights were changed from 19.3K to 35.3K to probe its role on gas transport and physical properties. These studies revealed that permeability, diffusivity, and solubility increased with increasing molecular weight, while density decreased with increasing molecular weight. These results suggest that there is an increase in free volume with increasing 6FDA-6FpDA polyimide molecular weight. / Ph. D.