Background: Antiretroviral therapy (ART), notably lopinavir and nevirapine substantially reduces Human immune-deficiency virus (HIV) associated morbidity and mortality in HIVinfected children. Low concentrations of nevirapine and lopinavir have been linked to inferior virological outcomes; it is recommended that lopinavir and nevirapine concentrations are maintained above 1 mg/L and 3 mg/L, respectively, in order to maintain viral suppression. Adherence to both lopinavir and nevirapine ART, respectively has long known to be a crucial contributor to HIV treatment success. Lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetics demonstrate considerable inter-individual variability, which may affect treatment outcomes. At least part of this variability may be explained by host genetic factors. Associations between human genetic variants and exposure to lopinavir and nevirapine are incompletely understood, and have not been studied in a South African paediatric population. Data in this thesis were from a clinical trial conducted at Rahima Moosa Mother and Child Hospital in Johannesburg to assess whether NVP can be re-used (Post-randomization Phase) among 323 children exposed to NVP for PMTCT if they are first suppressed on ritonavir-boosted lopinavir based regimen (Pre-randomization Phase). This thesis assessed the relationship between serial clinic visits lopinavir (Pre-and-Post-randomization) and nevirapine (Postrandomization) concentrations and/or percentage adherence(Pre-and-Post-randomization) and virological outcomes in children. Moreover, population pharmacokinetics models were used to characterise lopinavir and nevirapine parameters. From the final models parameters were derived and were used to assess the relationship between lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetics and genetic polymorphism relevant to both drugs Methods: Cox proportional hazard regression modelling for multiple failure events was used to estimate the crude and adjusted hazard effect of lopinavir (Pre-and Post-randomization) and nevirapine(Post-randomization) concentrations and/or percent adherence(Pre-and Post-randomization) of viral load>400 copies/mL (Pre-randomization) and >50 copies/mL (Post-randomization), respectively. The population means and variances of lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetic parameters at steady state were estimated using non-linear mixed-effects regression. The final models of lopinavir and nevirapine were used to derive individual clearances (CL/F), minimum concentrations (Cmin) and area under the concentration time curves (AUC). The associations between model-derived pharmacokinetic parameters and genotypes in selected genes relevant to lopinavir or nevirapine were explored. Results: In 237 children pre-randomization with viral loads and lopinavir concentrations, the crude and adjusted Cox models revealed significant associations between virologic failure (viral load>400 copies/mL) and both lopinavir plasma concentrations (<1/mg/L) and pretreatment height-for-age z-scores but not percent adherence. In 99 children postrandomization, lopinavir concentrations >1 mg/L reduced the risk of viremia (viral load >50 copies/mL) with about 40%, compared to children with LPV <1 mg/L. No association was found with percent adherence in this group. In 95 children on nevirapine post-randomization, nevirapine concentrations were not significantly associated with increased hazard of viremia (viral load >50 copies/mL). Similarly, there was no significant association with percent adherence in this group. Lopinavir and nevirapine pharmacokinetics were both separately best described with a one compartment models with absorption lag time and transit compartment absorption models, respectively. There was an age driven effect on lopinavir and nevirapine relative bioavailability, respectively. After adjusting for multiple testing, there was no significant association between lopinavir CL/F, Cmin and AUC and genetic polymorphisms in the ABCB1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and SLCO1B1. CYP2B6 516G→T and CYP2B6 983T→C were associated with NVP CL/F. CYP2B6 983T→C was associated with NVP Cmin and AUC. Additionally, polymorphisms in the ABCB1 and CYP3A5 were independently associated with NVP CL/F, Cmin and AUC. Conclusions: Lopinavir concentrations <1mg/L were associated with the increased hazard of viremia (viral load >400 copies/mL or >50 copies/mL). The results suggest that lopinavir plasma concentration monitoring at a routine clinic visit may be a useful tool in identifying sub-therapeutic antiretroviral concentrations in children, and this could be used as a guide to therapeutic drug monitoring in children. There was no statistically significant association between polymorphisms in the ABCB1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and SLCO1B1 and lopinavir pharmacokinetics. Polymorphisms in the ABCB1, CYP2B6 CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 predicted nevirapine pharmacokinetics.

HINTERGRUND UND ZIELE: Es ist allgemein anerkannt, dass neben Umweltfaktoren auch erbliche Faktoren in hohem Maße für interindividuelle Unterschiede in der Wirkweise von Arzneimitteln ursächlich sind. Die Spannweite der Arzneimittelwirkung bei gleicher Dosis kann individuell von Therapieversagen bis hin zu toxischer Überdosierung reichen und ist dabei stark von Arzneimittel-metabolisierenden Enzymen und Transportern beeinflusst. Genetische Varianten können teilweise interindividuelle Unterschiede in der Aktivität dieser Enzyme und Transporter erklären. Es bleibt jedoch unbekannt, wie viel der Variation in der Aktivität durch Erblichkeit bedingt ist und nicht durch bereits bekannte genetische Varianten erklärt werden kann. Primäres Ziel der Studie war es, diesen unbekannten erblichen Anteil in der Variation der Aktivität der Enzyme CY2D6 und CYP2C9 sowie des Transporters OATP1B1 zu quantifizieren. METHODEN: Die Erblichkeit in der Variation der Aktivität von CY2D6, CYP2C9 und OATP1B1 wurde in 20 mono- und 9 dizygoten, gleichgeschlechtlichen Zwillingspaaren untersucht. Die Testsubstanzen Metoprolol (CYP2D6) und Torasemid (CYP2C9 und OATP1B1) wurden jedem Studienteilnehmer wiederholt verabreicht und die Fläche unter der Kurve bis unendlich (AUC0-inf) für jedes Medikament und seinen Metaboliten als Marker der Enzym- (CYP2D6, CYP2C9) und Transporter- (OATP1B1) Aktivitäten bestimmt. Erblichkeit wurde mithilfe von Formeln mit den Korrelationskoeffizienten der Geschwister in den Gruppen mono- und dizygote Zwillingspaare, durch eine Strukturgleichungsmodellierung und durch Vergleich der intra- und interindividuellen Variation berechnet. ERGEBNISSE: Es wurde ein hohe Erblichkeit in der Variation der Aktivität von CYP2D6, CYP2C9 und OATP1B1 berechnet. Für CYP2D6 lag die Erblichkeit bei 88,5% -100%, für CYP2C9 und OATP1B1 bei 81% - 100%. Die bekannten genetischen Varianten konnten lediglich einen geringen Anteil der Variation in der AUC0-inf in der Studienpopulation erklären (38,2% durch genetische Varianten in CYP2D6, 6,5% durch genetische Varianten in CYP2C9 und 20,4% durch genetische Varianten in OATP1B1). FAZIT: Die Berechnungen zeigen, dass Erblichkeit einen großen Einfluss auf die Variation in der Aktivität der Enzyme CYP2D6, CYP2C9 und den Transporter OATP1B1 hat. Bekannte genetische Varianten können hiervon nur einen Teil erklären. Weitere Untersuchungen zu genetischen Regulation der Wirkweise von Arzneimitteln erscheinen vielversprechend.