During the 1990s, shellfish hatcheries operating on the Eastern Shore of Virginia noticed an increase in mortalities of their clam larvae; it was suspected that this was a result of the deteriorating quality of the estuarine water used by aquaculture hatcheries. Many hatcheries obtain their facility process water directly from nearby streams and estuaries. During the same time period, there was also an increase in the use of plastic mulch on some of the vegetable fields on the Eastern Shore. The increased runoff commonly associated with these plastic-covered fields often contains copper-based bactericides that are used on the crops. The plasticulture fields were often located adjacent to the same estuaries from which the shellfish hatcheries draw their water. High levels of copper were measured in multiple surface water locations near these fields. Runoff associated with the plasticulture fields contained up to 238 ug/L dissolved copper, well in excess of the copper concentration of 16.4 ug/L dissolved copper known to affect the mortality of larval clams. Surface water samples collected from nearby unimpacted water bodies contained less than 4 ug/L dissolved copper. Sorption studies conducted with synthetic estuary water quantified the dissolved copper sorption capacities of eight sorbents, including GACs, zeolites, a greensand, and an ion exchange resin, Amberlite IRC-718. These isotherm studies showed that all sorbents removed soluble copper, and that increased salinity and a greater contact time were shown to increase sorption. Utilizing the Freundlich isotherm, the capacity of the eight sorbents studies ranged from 25 to 221 ug/g with a 24-hour contact time. Column studies with an influent concentration of 300 ug/L dissolved copper showed that using 10 grams of a GAC sorbent, a flow rate of 5 mL/min maintained the target effluent concentration of less than 16.4 ug/L for approximately 100 hours. A similar column using 10 g of resin sorbent at a flow rate of 12.5 mL/min maintained the target effluent concentration for approximately 300 hours. The high removal capacity of the resin makes it a desirable treatment for controlling copper in estuarine water used for aquaculture. Utilizing the sorbent capacities obtained from the Freundlich isotherm and a batch treatment, a typical 500 gallon tank used for clam aquaculture would require approximately four pounds of a GAC sorbent, or two pounds of the resin sorbent to reduce a source water that contains 300 ug/L of dissolved copper to below the larval clam toxicity level. Both sorbents would require a 24-hour contact time. / Master of Science

Thesis(M.S.)--Auburn University, 2007. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographic references.

This project investigates the effect of plasticulture and copper-based crop protectants on water quality on the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Water and sediment copper concentrations in both plasticulture and non-plasticulture containing watersheds were measured to determine the scope of copper in Eastern Shore tidal creeks. Runoff from a variety of land-uses including agricultural, plasticultural, residential and natural areas were collected and measured for copper to determine where copper-containing runoff originates. Copper concentrations in plasticulture impacted tidal creeks were higher than background (0 - 3 ug/L) only in spikes, during or immediately after runoff-producing rainfall events. These spikes registered as high as 263 ug/L total copper, or 127 ug/L dissolved copper. Plasticulture and copper-based crop protectants were affirmed as the cause of these spikes because control watersheds indicated no high copper spikes. Runoff from different land-uses verify that copper is present in high concentrations only in runoff from fields engaged in plasticulture and using copper-based crop protectants. Sediment copper concentrations were found to be within the natural range, but exhibited some variability based on proximity to agricultural copper inputs. / Master of Science

Thesis (M.S.)--Auburn University, 2008. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis(M.S.)--Auburn University, 2006. / Abstract. Includes bibliographic references (p.61-74).

Renewed interest in hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) for cannabinoid production has highlighted critical knowledge gaps for growers. The impacts of weed interference on hemp yield are largely unstudied despite causing serious economic losses in most cropping systems. Furthermore, understanding factors determining cannabinoid content of hemp will be crucial for effective production. To evaluate the effects of weed competition on hemp yield and cannabinoid content, hemp growing in plasticulture was subjected to competition from 5, 3, 1, or 0 waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer) plants. Hemp biomass and cannabinoid content were not significantly affected by weed competition. Yields in weedy and weed-free treatments were generally comparable, although unexpectedly high variation limited the ability to detect subtle differences between treatments. Waterhemp biomass was significantly reduced by competition from hemp in comparison to hemp-free controls. Suppression of weed growth by hemp and lack of significant yield loss from weeds suggests that hemp can be highly competitive and grown successfully without herbicides in certain circumstances. Abundance and documented phytotoxicity of hemp secondary metabolites suggest a potential for allelopathic activity. While incorporated hemp residue was not more effective than a maize control at reducing plant growth, hemp residue and extracts effectively inhibit seed germination. A laboratory assay showed that crude extracts of hemp can reduce the germination of a Brassica napus L., a bioindicator. Furthermore, a greenhouse experiment showed that small amounts of hemp residue on the soil surface can effectively reduce and delay the germination of waterhemp. Together, these results show that hemp residue has the potential to be incorporated with a practice such as chaff-lining for enhanced control of germinating weed seeds.

The fate and distribution of copper-based crop protectants, applied to tomato fields to protect against disease, were investigated in a greenhouse-scale simulation of farming conditions in a coastal environment. Following rainfall, 99% of the applied copper was found to remain on the fields sorbed to the soil and plants; most of the soil-bound copper was found sorbed to the top 2.5 centimeters of soil. Of the copper leaving the agricultural fields, 82% was found in the runoff with the majority, 74%, sorbed to the suspended solids. The remaining copper, 18%, leached through the soil and entered the groundwater with 10% in the dissolved phase and 8% sorbed to suspended solids. Although only one-percent of the copper was found to leave the field, this was sufficient to cause high copper concentrations (average 2102 ± 433 mg/L total copper and 189 ± 139 mg/L dissolved copper) in the runoff. Copper concentrations in groundwater samples were also high (average 312 ± 198 mg/L total copper and 216 ± 99 mg/L dissolved copper). Sedimentation, a best management practice for reducing copper loadings, was found to reduce the total copper concentrations in runoff by 90% to a concentration of 245 ± 127 mg/L; however, dissolved copper concentrations remained stable, averaging 139 ± 55 mg/L. Total copper concentrations were significantly reduced by the effective removal of suspended solids with sorbed copper. This research was supported by a grant from the Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Funding was also provided by Sea Grant. / Master of Science

Este trabalho objetivou determinar as modificações ambientais causadas pelo uso de filme de polietileno de baixa densidade (PEBD), em túneis baixos com perfurações de 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% e 20% no desempenho da cultura da rúcula (Eruca vesicaria sativa (Mill) Thell) durante o verão e o outono e da cultura do rabanete (Raphanus sativus L.) durante o inverno e a primavera. Como variáveis resposta analisaram-se a umidade relativa do ar, a temperatura ambiente, a temperatura do solo, a radiação solar, além das características morfológicas da cultura: a massa seca, a massa verde, número de folhas (altura, peso, largura da planta), além da produtividade por área em cada tratamento. Os resultados mostraram que as variáveis climáticas envolvidas não apresentaram resultados significativamente diferentes entre os diversos níveis de perfuração pesquisados (5%, 10%, 15% e 20%). No entanto, as alterações microclimáticas ocorridas pela influência das perfurações no filme plástico tornaram o microclima no interior dos túneis baixos propício ao melhor desenvolvimento da cultura da rúcula (Eruca vesicaria sativa (Mill)Thell), e do rabanete (Raphanus sativus L.), resultando em maior produtividade. / The purpose of this research was to determine the environmental changes that the low density polythylene with different perforated film area (5, 10, 15, 20%) may cause on the rocket press culture (Eruca vesicaria sativa (Mill) Thell) during summer and fall time and radish culture (Raphanus sativus L.) during winter and spring time in low tunnel conditions. The climate variables analyzed were the humidity and air temperature, soil temperature and solar radiation. The culture parameters used to compare the treatments were dry matter, green matter, morphologicals characteristics of the plants (number, height, width and weight of leaves) and productivity. The results showed that find any significative differences between the climate variables inside the low tunnel with different perforated film area (5, 10, 15, 20%). However, the modification caused by the low tunnel with perforated plastic did provide performance of rocket press culture (Eruca vesicaria sativa (Mill) Thell) development in summer and fall time, and radish culture (Raphanus sativus L.) development in winter and spring, had better productivity and marketable characteristics.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a influência da disposição de malhas de sombreamento (termo-refletora) instaladas externa e internamente em ambiente protegido, coberto com polietileno de baixa densidade (PEBD), cultivado com gérbera, nas variáveis ambientais, nas variáveis e na qualidade das plantas. Além disso, determinou-se a evapotranspiração da gérbera (ETc), a qual foi correlacionada com as variáveis ambientais e da planta. As variáveis de maior correlação foram utilizadas para a confecção de modelos de estimativa da ETc, por meio de regressões lineares múltiplas (RLM). O experimento foi conduzido em dois ciclos no ano de 2004, junto à área experimental do Departamento de Engenharia Rural, da ESALQ/USP, em Piracicaba, SP, em um ambiente protegido, subdividido em duas partes, cada uma com 8,5m de comprimento, 6,4m largura e altura máxima de 4,2m. Os ambientes foram cobertos com PEBD e diferenciados um do outro pela instalação de malha termorefletora (50%): malha externa (ambiente 1) e malha interna (ambiente 2). Sensores para medida das variáveis ambientais foram instalados no centro dos ambientes 1 e 2. Os mesmos dados foram coletados externamente por uma estação meteorológica automática. Os resultados dos dois ciclos mostraram que houve alteração no microclima dos dois ambientes estudados. Radiação solar (Qg) nos ambientes 1 e 2 foram 33,6% e 21,7% (1º ciclo) e 27,2% e 17,9% (2º ciclo) da observada externamente. A cobertura do ambiente 2 não alterou a fração da radiação solar em relação à condição externa, porém a do ambiente 1 diminuiu tal relação em 8%. A temperatura no ambiente 1, em média, foi superior em 1% (1º ciclo) e 2% (2º ciclo), em relação ao ambiente externo, enquanto que no ambiente 2 essa diferença foi de 7% e 8%. No ambiente 1, as gérberas apresentaram, em média, 3,21 (1º ciclo) e 3,02 (2º ciclo) botões. No ambiente 2, esses valores caíram para 2,37 e 2,26. Quanto à sua qualidade, verificou-se que no ambiente 1 houve uma maior proporção de plantas de padrão médio e bom. Entre os 1º e 2º ciclos houve diferenças na qualidade das gérberas, sendo menor no 2o em decorrência da menor disponibilidade de energia nesse ciclo. Somente as gérberas presentes no ambiente 1 atenderam às exigências mercadológicas quanto aos botões e à altura da haste. No entanto, com o tempo esse tipo de ambiente pode passar a ter piores condições para a produção, em razão de um maior acúmulo de poeira. No ambiente 1 a ETc média foi de 2,64 (1º ciclo) e 2,26 mm.d-1 2º ciclo), enquanto no ambiente 2 a ETc média foi 2,59 e 2,10 mm.d-1. A análise de correlação mostrou que Qg foi a variável ambiental que mais influenciou ETc. Ao se combinar Qg à área foliar em RLM para estimativa da ETc foram obtidos R2 de 0,82 e 0,75 para os ambientes 1 e 2, respectivamente. Ao se testar essas equações observou-se que a ETc no ambiente 1 foi subestimada em 2% e no ambiente 2 foi superestimada em 2%. Sugere-se estudos futuros com a malha termo-refletora instalada na face interna da cobertura, a fim de anular o efeito da deposição de poeira. / The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of low density polyethylene (PEBD) as a greenhouse cover in association with thermal shading screen installed in two different positions (outside and inside), cultivated with gerbera, on micrometeorogical variables, as well as on the growth, quality and evapotranspiration (ETc) of gerbera plants. The experiment was carried out during two crop cycles in 2004 at the experimental area of the Department of Rural Engineering, ESALQ/USP, in Piracicaba, State of São Paulo, Brasil. A greenhouse was sub-divided in two parts, witch one with 8,5 m length, 6,4 m width and maximum height of 4,2 m. The greenhouse were covered with PEBD and differed from each other by the position of the thermal shading screen (50%), witch was installed inside (at 3m height) and outside (re-covering the plastic cover). The environment with the thermal screen outside was named A1 and the other with the thermal screen inside was named A2. Micrometeorological sensors were installed in the centers of each greenhouse. The same set of data were also measured by an automatic weather station. The results from the two crop cycles showed that the microclimate was changed by the covers of the greenhouses. Radiation (Qg) inside the greenhouses was 33,6% and 21,7% (first cycle), and 27,2% and 17,9 (second cycles) of the values measured outside, respectively for A1 e A2. The relationship PAR/Qg was not changes in comparison to external conditions in A2. However, this relationship was reduced in 8% in A1. Temperatures inside greenhouses were higher than outside: 1-2% in A1 and 7-8% in A2. Few differences were observed in plant parameters between the two crop cycles. But differences were detected between environments A1 e A2, especially in the number of flower buttons and plant quality. A1 showed to be better having plants with more buttons and with better quality for market. Average ETc ranged from 2,64 to 2,26 mm.d-1 in A1, and from 2,59 to 2,10 mm.d-1 in A2, respectively for the first and second cycles. The correlation analysis between ETc and environmental and plant variables showed that Qg and leaf area per plant (LA) were the main ones to influence the plant water consumption. Multiple linear regression equations, to estimate ETc from Qg and leaf area were proposed for each environment. The test of these equations showed an underestimation of 2% in A1 and an overestimation of 2% in A2.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a influência da disposição de malhas de sombreamento (termo-refletora) instaladas externa e internamente em ambiente protegido, coberto com polietileno de baixa densidade (PEBD), cultivado com gérbera, nas variáveis ambientais, nas variáveis e na qualidade das plantas. Além disso, determinou-se a evapotranspiração da gérbera (ETc), a qual foi correlacionada com as variáveis ambientais e da planta. As variáveis de maior correlação foram utilizadas para a confecção de modelos de estimativa da ETc, por meio de regressões lineares múltiplas (RLM). O experimento foi conduzido em dois ciclos no ano de 2004, junto à área experimental do Departamento de Engenharia Rural, da ESALQ/USP, em Piracicaba, SP, em um ambiente protegido, subdividido em duas partes, cada uma com 8,5m de comprimento, 6,4m largura e altura máxima de 4,2m. Os ambientes foram cobertos com PEBD e diferenciados um do outro pela instalação de malha termorefletora (50%): malha externa (ambiente 1) e malha interna (ambiente 2). Sensores para medida das variáveis ambientais foram instalados no centro dos ambientes 1 e 2. Os mesmos dados foram coletados externamente por uma estação meteorológica automática. Os resultados dos dois ciclos mostraram que houve alteração no microclima dos dois ambientes estudados. Radiação solar (Qg) nos ambientes 1 e 2 foram 33,6% e 21,7% (1º ciclo) e 27,2% e 17,9% (2º ciclo) da observada externamente. A cobertura do ambiente 2 não alterou a fração da radiação solar em relação à condição externa, porém a do ambiente 1 diminuiu tal relação em 8%. A temperatura no ambiente 1, em média, foi superior em 1% (1º ciclo) e 2% (2º ciclo), em relação ao ambiente externo, enquanto que no ambiente 2 essa diferença foi de 7% e 8%. No ambiente 1, as gérberas apresentaram, em média, 3,21 (1º ciclo) e 3,02 (2º ciclo) botões. No ambiente 2, esses valores caíram para 2,37 e 2,26. Quanto à sua qualidade, verificou-se que no ambiente 1 houve uma maior proporção de plantas de padrão médio e bom. Entre os 1º e 2º ciclos houve diferenças na qualidade das gérberas, sendo menor no 2o em decorrência da menor disponibilidade de energia nesse ciclo. Somente as gérberas presentes no ambiente 1 atenderam às exigências mercadológicas quanto aos botões e à altura da haste. No entanto, com o tempo esse tipo de ambiente pode passar a ter piores condições para a produção, em razão de um maior acúmulo de poeira. No ambiente 1 a ETc média foi de 2,64 (1º ciclo) e 2,26 mm.d-1 2º ciclo), enquanto no ambiente 2 a ETc média foi 2,59 e 2,10 mm.d-1. A análise de correlação mostrou que Qg foi a variável ambiental que mais influenciou ETc. Ao se combinar Qg à área foliar em RLM para estimativa da ETc foram obtidos R2 de 0,82 e 0,75 para os ambientes 1 e 2, respectivamente. Ao se testar essas equações observou-se que a ETc no ambiente 1 foi subestimada em 2% e no ambiente 2 foi superestimada em 2%. Sugere-se estudos futuros com a malha termo-refletora instalada na face interna da cobertura, a fim de anular o efeito da deposição de poeira. / The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of low density polyethylene (PEBD) as a greenhouse cover in association with thermal shading screen installed in two different positions (outside and inside), cultivated with gerbera, on micrometeorogical variables, as well as on the growth, quality and evapotranspiration (ETc) of gerbera plants. The experiment was carried out during two crop cycles in 2004 at the experimental area of the Department of Rural Engineering, ESALQ/USP, in Piracicaba, State of São Paulo, Brasil. A greenhouse was sub-divided in two parts, witch one with 8,5 m length, 6,4 m width and maximum height of 4,2 m. The greenhouse were covered with PEBD and differed from each other by the position of the thermal shading screen (50%), witch was installed inside (at 3m height) and outside (re-covering the plastic cover). The environment with the thermal screen outside was named A1 and the other with the thermal screen inside was named A2. Micrometeorological sensors were installed in the centers of each greenhouse. The same set of data were also measured by an automatic weather station. The results from the two crop cycles showed that the microclimate was changed by the covers of the greenhouses. Radiation (Qg) inside the greenhouses was 33,6% and 21,7% (first cycle), and 27,2% and 17,9 (second cycles) of the values measured outside, respectively for A1 e A2. The relationship PAR/Qg was not changes in comparison to external conditions in A2. However, this relationship was reduced in 8% in A1. Temperatures inside greenhouses were higher than outside: 1-2% in A1 and 7-8% in A2. Few differences were observed in plant parameters between the two crop cycles. But differences were detected between environments A1 e A2, especially in the number of flower buttons and plant quality. A1 showed to be better having plants with more buttons and with better quality for market. Average ETc ranged from 2,64 to 2,26 mm.d-1 in A1, and from 2,59 to 2,10 mm.d-1 in A2, respectively for the first and second cycles. The correlation analysis between ETc and environmental and plant variables showed that Qg and leaf area per plant (LA) were the main ones to influence the plant water consumption. Multiple linear regression equations, to estimate ETc from Qg and leaf area were proposed for each environment. The test of these equations showed an underestimation of 2% in A1 and an overestimation of 2% in A2.