Background Indoor air pollution due to use of biomass fuels (BMF) for household cooking and heating is a known risk factor of morbidity and mortality in children under the age of five years. A recent study in India suggested an association between biomass fuel smoke exposure anaemia and stunting among children under the age of five. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between BMF use, stunting and anaemia in children aged 12-59 months who participated in the 2006-2007 Swaziland Demographic and Health Survey (SDHS), whilst adjusting for potential confounders. Methods The study was cross-sectional and based on secondary data analysis of data collected through the household and women’s questionnaires in the 2006-2007 SDHS, which employed a multistage random sampling. Anthropometric measurements taken in the SDHS and the World Health Organization (WHO) 2006 Multi-Centre Child growth reference standards were used to ascertain children’s health status and the stunting outcome variable. A child, whose height-for-age ratio was below three standard deviations (SD) from the median of the WHO reference population in terms of height-for-age, was severely stunted or short for his/her age. A child, whose height-for-age ratio was between three and two SD below the median of the WHO reference population in terms of height-for-age, was mildly stunted. The exposure to BMF smoke variable was ascertained indirectly by type of fuel used for cooking. The exposure was a three category variable of cleaner fuel, outdoor BMF and indoor BMF use. All statistical analysis was done in STATA version 10. The relationship between BMF use and stunting or anaemia was determined using multinomial logistic regression analyses, whilst adjusting for potential confounding factors, identified in previous research. Results Of the 1612 children included in the study, 37% were anaemic. Nineteen percent were mildly and 18% were moderate to severely anaemic. Indoor BMF use, child age, low birth weight, mother’s age at birth, iron supplementation during pregnancy and mother’s anaemia status was significantly associated with child anaemia in univariate analysis. Outdoor BMF exposure, low birth weight, child age, mother’s anaemia status and wealth index was associated with child anaemia after adjusting for potential confounding. Overall 31% of children were stunted. Twenty percent were mildly stunted and 11% were moderate to severely stunted. Child sex, age, birth order, preceding birth interval, low birth weight, diarrhoea in preceding two weeks, anaemia status, iron supplementation during pregnancy, mother’s age at birth ,mother’s body mass index, mother’s education, wealth index, indoor BMF exposure and household crowding were each independently associated with stunting in univariate analysis. Only child sex, low birth weight and child age were significantly associated with stunting after adjusting for potential confounding. There was no evidence of an association between indoor BMF smoke exposure and child stunting after adjusting for all potential confounding factors. Conclusion This study did not find sufficient evidence to suggest that indoor BMF use is a statistically significant risk factor for anaemia or stunting in children aged 12-59 months participating in the 2006-2007 SDHS. There was however an evidence that, use of BMF outdoors significantly confers a protective effect against moderate to severe anaemia. Prospective research into these potential relationships are necessary, particularly the collection of primary data and accurate measurement of exposure to smoke emitted during BMF use for cooking and heating.

Iron and steel plants in general are significant sources of PM10 pollution. Many studies have concluded that PM10 is harmful to human health and well being. ArcelorMittal Vanderbijlpark Works falls within the jurisdiction of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area (VTAPA) and has been given PM10 reduction targets in the Air Quality Management Plan. The aim of this study is to use dispersion modelling to determine the impact of the Vanderbijlpark Works steel plant on ambient PM10 and to assess the effectiveness of the reduction strategies with respect to PM10 The AERMOD dispersion model was chosen for the exercise because of its reliability when modelling near field dispersions on relatively flat terrain. Meteorological data was obtained from on-site stations. Emissions data was obtained from an already existing emissions inventory on site. The study modelled the PM10 baseline for 2010 and then modelled the predicted concentrations after implementation of the strategies as outlined in the VTAPA. The modeling scenarios were compared to the measured PM10 data from the fence line monitors. The following findings were made: Point sources were not significant contributors to PM10 emission. Modeling of area sources and other fugitive dust sources were found to be high and when compared to measured concentrations were found to be over predicted. It is concluded that the fugitive sources have been found to be the major source of PM10 emissions and that reduction of fugitives should feature prominently in emission reduction plans going forward. In addition, the fugitive emissions inventory needs to be refined to enhance the accuracy of the predictions.

Introduction The problems associated with poor indoor air quality and the possible subsequent effects thereof on workers, as experienced by the Department of Health in the Regional office situated in the Karel Schoeman building (KSB) in Pretoria, were investigated and are discussed. The possible association between the physical indoor environmental conditions and the sick building syndrome (SBS) like symptoms as well as the seemingly low productivity and the above average rate of absenteeism are included in these discussions. To find a possible association between these poor physical environmental indoor conditions and the potential adverse affects on the health and motivation of workers, a cross sectional survey was conducted to assess the physical, biological and chemical quality of indoor air (Refer to as IAQ – Indoor Air Quality) as well as the chemical and biological quality of the drinking water. Objectives This research report documents a project to measure the environmental conditions which include CO(Carbon Monoxide), CO2(Carbon Dioxide), relative humidity( RH), temperature, air velocity, the microbial and chemical composition of the drinking water and culturable micro organisms in specific work environments within the KSB and to compare the outcome to standards for acceptable indoor working environments. The specific objectives of this study are:  To describe the environmental conditions CO, CO2, RH, temperature and air velocity exposures in specific work environments during the period 2003-2004;  To describe the microbial exposures to Legionellae (which is actually one of a group of similar diseases collectively known as Legionellosis.)  To compare measured environmental exposures to the Environmental Regulations for workplaces promulgated in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1993 (Act 85 of 1993) (OHSA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) standards and other national and internationally recognised standards and  To compare the microbial monitoring results including the evaluation results of the drinking water for culturable micro organisms and E.coli, to the NIOSH and other national and international recognized standards. Methods To control for confounding, samples of the drinking water as well as from a stagnant pool in the basement were taken and analysed for bacteriological and chemical compliance as well as identification of any microbes and chemicals that can contribute to SBS Environmental conditions which include CO, CO2, RH, temperature, air velocity, the microbial and chemical composition of the drinking water and culturable micro organisms including E.coli, in specific work environments were measured. Measurements were conducted in accordance with the procedures prescribed in the ASHRAE 41.6 of 1994, ACGIH (Handbook for industrial ventilation, EPA building Air quality guidelines, US Department of Labour –OHSA Technical manual),the respective manufacturers recommendations and the SABS Code 0400 of 1990 and sampling of the water in terms of the procedures prescribed by NIOH in the case of sampling for Legionellae and the Microbiological laboratory of the Rietvlei accredited water research laboratory with reference to sampling for identification of micro organisms including E.coli and the chemical composition. Appropriate recognized analytical methods were used to analyse and interpret the data generated from both the chemical and biological sampling results. Results Based on the outcome of the project results, it is clear that the air conditioning system does meet the mentioned minimum prescribed physical environmental national and international norms and standards for indoor air quality. The findings from the study indicate compliance of the physical environmental conditions to universally accepted standards and no association between those poor physical indoor environmental conditions and the sick building syndrome (SBS) like symptoms as well as the seemingly low productivity and the above average rate of absenteeism could therefore be made. The presence of coliform organisms above the norm in the air samples is however a concern. Discussion The OHSA requires employees to access the health and safety risks that hazards pose to their employees in their respective working environments and to take reasonably practicable steps towards eliminating or controlling these hazards. Like any other risks in a workplace environmental conditions need to be identified and controlled based on the principles of risk management. Conclusion The above high rate of absenteeism, as perceived by management, could not be associated with the environmental conditions covered in this project. It could however be ascribed, directly or indirectly to the following variables and assumptions which could be categorised under environmental conditions and the management thereof as well as the management of employees/workers located within the building. Environmental conditions such as substandard quality water supply, the management processes during the decommissioning of the old HVAC system and the commissioning of the replacement system, poor general housekeeping and unacceptable management principles of good quality clean working environments location of the building in the mid city centre of Pretoria and the possible contamination of indoor air by external sources bio quality could be variables contributing to the high rate of absenteeism. The seasonal occurrences of influenza and colds as well as home and external exposures could also possibly be considered as contributing factors in this regard. In addition poor general workers or people‟s management which could have resulted in low staff morale and personal motivation linked to poor supervision during a period of a very serious organizational restructuring which affected many workers could have also being considered as contributing factors to high absenteeism. Substandard ergonomics could have also played a role during this process.

No presente trabalho estudamos a difusão de compostos dispersos atmosfericamente como, por exemplo, fertilizantes e pesticidas particulares, em ambientes agrícolas de larga escala. Tal estudo foca-se na aplicabilidade de modelos numéricos e teórico-fenomenológicos de fenômenos turbulentos em estimativas de vantagens econômica e ambiental desses sistemas. A atmosfera terrestre, em escalas de tamanho e velocidade típicas do objeto de estudo deste trabalho, é um sistema turbulento. A turbulência é um fenômeno complexo, que envolve a interação dinâmica de distintas escalas resultando em um efeito coletivo de larga escala, decorrente de uma interação não linear entre modos perturbativos em um fluido. A modelagem da turbulência, portanto, é em geral possível através de Simulação Numérica Direta - DNS (Direct Numeric Simulation). Uma das consequências típicas da turbulência é a difusão, ou seja, o aumento em sistemas abertos da separação entre corpos particulados, em taxas muito superiores àquelas da difusão molecular térmica padrão. Neste trabalho, apresentamos um estudo focado na quantificação da difusão turbulenta de partículas através de simulações numéricas de turbulência, com o objetivo de identificar impactos de fertilização e dispersão de poluentes atmosféricos com implicações na saúde e ambiente / In the present study, we study the diffusion dispersed atmospherically compounds, such as fertilizers and particular pesticides in large scale agricultural environments. This study focuses on the applicability of numerical and theoretical and phenomenological models of turbulent phenomena in estimates of economic and environmental advantages of these systems. The Earth\'s atmosphere, in typical size and speed ranges of the study object of this work is a turbulent system. Turbulence is a complex phenomenon which involves the dynamic interaction of different ranges resulting in a large-scale collective effect due to a nonlinear interaction between perturbation modes in a fluid. The modeling of turbulence, so it is generally possible through Direct Numerical Simulation - DNS. A typical consequence of turbulence is the diffusion, i.e., increased separation in unbound systems of particulate bodies, much higher than those of the standard thermal molecular diffusion rates. In this work we present a study focused on quantifying the turbulent diffusion of particles through numerical simulations of turbulent media, in order to identify the impact of fertilization and dispersion of air pollutants on human health and environment

Ambient air pollution, including airborne particulate matter (PM) derived from combustion of fossil fuels (FF) or biomass (BM), has detrimental inflammatory effects on human health. Myeloid antigen presenting cells, including dendritic cells (DCs) regulate immune responses in the airway and sample inhaled PM. This study tests the hypothesis that PM interacts with multiple environmental sensing pathways in DCs with outcomes that depend on particle size and composition as determined by combustion source. The effects of different sized PM (< 10μm, PM10; < 2.5μm, PM2.5), derived from the combustion of FF or BM, on human monocyte-derived or ex vivo sputum DCs, were examined. DC activation status, cytokine production and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signalling were assessed by flow-cytometry, multiplex ELISA and qRT-PCR, following exposure to PM. Pathway-specific antagonists were used to explore underlying mechanisms. Particle size and combustion source influenced the effects of PM on DCs. Irrespective of combustion source, PM10 but not PM2.5, induced MoDC maturation and stimulated production of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-18, indicative of inflammasome activation. These responses were dependent, at least in part, on TLR4 as was the induction of IDO by PM10. AhR signalling was induced by PM in both MoDC and ex vivo sputum DC. It was stimulated by both PM10 and PM2.5 and was induced more strongly by BM-derived PM. AhR activation was independent of DC maturation and TLR4 signalling. Additionally, BM- but not FF-derived PM increased NADH levels in DC suggestive of altered metabolism. Thus, PM induces a complex programme of DC activation, influenced by size and combustion source, which includes classical maturation, inflammasome dependent cytokine release and AhR signalling as well as potential metabolic changes. In the airway, exposure to different PM and the changes in DCs induced by them may lead to altered responses to inhaled antigen.

No description available.

No presente trabalho estudamos a difusão de compostos dispersos atmosfericamente como, por exemplo, fertilizantes e pesticidas particulares, em ambientes agrícolas de larga escala. Tal estudo foca-se na aplicabilidade de modelos numéricos e teórico-fenomenológicos de fenômenos turbulentos em estimativas de vantagens econômica e ambiental desses sistemas. A atmosfera terrestre, em escalas de tamanho e velocidade típicas do objeto de estudo deste trabalho, é um sistema turbulento. A turbulência é um fenômeno complexo, que envolve a interação dinâmica de distintas escalas resultando em um efeito coletivo de larga escala, decorrente de uma interação não linear entre modos perturbativos em um fluido. A modelagem da turbulência, portanto, é em geral possível através de Simulação Numérica Direta - DNS (Direct Numeric Simulation). Uma das consequências típicas da turbulência é a difusão, ou seja, o aumento em sistemas abertos da separação entre corpos particulados, em taxas muito superiores àquelas da difusão molecular térmica padrão. Neste trabalho, apresentamos um estudo focado na quantificação da difusão turbulenta de partículas através de simulações numéricas de turbulência, com o objetivo de identificar impactos de fertilização e dispersão de poluentes atmosféricos com implicações na saúde e ambiente / In the present study, we study the diffusion dispersed atmospherically compounds, such as fertilizers and particular pesticides in large scale agricultural environments. This study focuses on the applicability of numerical and theoretical and phenomenological models of turbulent phenomena in estimates of economic and environmental advantages of these systems. The Earth\'s atmosphere, in typical size and speed ranges of the study object of this work is a turbulent system. Turbulence is a complex phenomenon which involves the dynamic interaction of different ranges resulting in a large-scale collective effect due to a nonlinear interaction between perturbation modes in a fluid. The modeling of turbulence, so it is generally possible through Direct Numerical Simulation - DNS. A typical consequence of turbulence is the diffusion, i.e., increased separation in unbound systems of particulate bodies, much higher than those of the standard thermal molecular diffusion rates. In this work we present a study focused on quantifying the turbulent diffusion of particles through numerical simulations of turbulent media, in order to identify the impact of fertilization and dispersion of air pollutants on human health and environment

Extreme flooding of rivers may contribute to increased loading of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to the Great Lakes, the Mississippi river, and other large lakes and surface waters downstream of industrial and urban areas. This study examines the fate of POPs that were mobilized during heavy flooding of the Cedar River and the small urban city of Cedar Rapids, Iowa during the summer of 2008. This study focuses polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). We hypothesize that these PCBs were mobilized by the flood water and that residues remained in the soils and sediments of the residential areas of the city. To test our hypothesis, soil samples were collected from ~200 of residential locations in the downtown Cedar Rapids area and analyzed for the three compound groups. Samples were extracted using an accelerated solvent extraction (ASE 300), and analyzed using GC/ECD, GC/MSD and GC/MS/MS.

The environmental health of aquatic ecosystems depends amongst others, on the chemical pollution coming from activities in the catchment's area. In the Swan River Estuary, Western Australia, the chemical pollutants of concern released into the river are petroleum hydrocarbons and sodium pentachlorophenate (NaPCP). Decreased water quality causes a loss of biotic diversity especially amongst fish populations. The health of aquatic ecosystems can be monitored by fish health, especially fish located at higher levels in the food chain. Pink snapper (Pagrus auratus), an endemic Western Australian fish species, was tested for its potential as a bioindicator of aquatic environmental health. This thesis presents data on the responsiveness of pink snapper to the contaminants of concern, using biomarkers such as serum sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH), mixed function oxygenase (MFO), metabolic enzymes such as citrate synthase (CS), cytochrome C oxidase (CCO) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and the histological alteration such as hepatic cell lesions (hyperplasia and hypertrophy), and glycogen and lipid droplets. The metabolic enzymes CCO and LDH as well as the hepatic MFO induction and histopathology were proven to be the most suitable biomarkers for use for routine monitoring of the Swan River Estuary using pink snapper as a bioindicator. However, CS activity and hepatic cell lesions (hyperplasia and hypertrophy) did not respond to exposure to contamination and are therefore not suited as biomarkers of effects in pink snapper. The first phase of the study aimed at investigating the responsiveness of juvenile pink snapper to an MFO inducer. Polychlorinated biphenyl isomer # 126 was selected as a model MFO inducer for this study. In the initial experiment, MFO activity was measured as a biomarker of exposure, and serum SDH activity was assessed as a biomarker of liver damage. / MFO and SDH activities were of special interest as these biochemical tools have not previously been validated for any Western Australia fish species. Juvenile pink snapper were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with 0, 10, 100, 500, 1000 microgram PCB-126 per kilogram. Fish were sacrificed 10 days postinjection, and liver and blood were collected for MFO and SDH analysis, respectively. Doses of 10 and 100 microgram PCB-126 per kilogram caused the highest MFO induction, while doses of 0 and 1000 microgram PCB-126 per kilogram did not result in higher MFO activity relative to carrier-injected (peanut oil) control fish. SDH activities were not significantly different among treatments indicating that hepatocellular damage was not responsible for the reduced MFO activity at the highest dose. Metabolic enzymes in pink snapper exposed by NaPCP were studied in the second phase of the experiment. The aim of this second experiment was to test the responsiveness of pink snapper to contaminants known to cause metabolic perturbations in vertebrates. Juvenile pink snapper were intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected with 0, 5, 10, 20 mg per kilogram. Oxidative enzymes were assessed by measuring CS and CCO activities and glycolytic enzyme was assessed by measuring LDI-1 activity in liver and white muscle tissues. CS activity remained unchanged in both the white muscle and in the liver. CCO activity was significantly enhanced in liver in all treated fish relative to control fish, but not in the white muscle. LDH activity was also higher in liver in all treated fish as compared to control fish, while in white muscle, LDH activity significantly increased at the highest dose injected. / The use of a suite of biochemical markers is useful in determining the effects of xenobiotic exposure of aquatic organisms, because it provides a holistic approach with biomarkers at different levels of biological organization. For the third and final phase of the study the suite of biomarkers selected were MFO, metabolic enzyme (CS, CCO and LDH) activities, and histological alternations in combination with physiological indices. The aim of this last experiment was to investigate if a modified liver metabolic activity would alter the MFO induction potential. To test if altered liver metabolism would influence liver detoxication capacities, juvenile pink snapper were i.p. injected with peanut oil (control), or pentachlorobiphenyl # 126 (PCB 126), with sodium pentachlorophenate (NaPCP), or combination of PCB 126+NaPCP. Relative to controls, ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was induced in the PCB 126 and PCB 126+NaPCP fish, but not in the NaPCP group. In the liver, CCO activity was enhanced by the treatments while CS activity remained unchanged and LDH activity was increased in the NaPCP treatment only. In the white muscle, only the PCB 126+ NaPCP treatment enhanced CCO activity, with all other enzymatic activities remaining unchanged. Low serum sorbitol dehydrogenase (sSDH) activity and histopathology of the liver indicated no significant alteration of cellular structure, albeit the lipid droplet size was increased in the PCB 126 and in the PCB 126+NaPCP treatments. / It is concluded that the hepatic metabolic changes correspond to histopathological observations, but an altered metabolic capacity does not influence the metabolism of xenobiotics by liver enzymes, as measured by EROD activity. These experiments answered the need to identify a suitable fish species for routine monitoring of the aquatic environment in Western Australia. It also identified the most suitable biochemical markers of exposure and effects, and the suitability of the pink snapper as a bioindicator. Finally, the experiments investigated interactions between biomarkers and provided new knowledge useful to scientists using MFO and/or metabolic enzymes in field or laboratory toxicology.

DDT, an extremely widely used organochlorine pesticide, was banned in most developed countries more than 30 years ago. However, DDT residues, including 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDE), still persist in the environment and have been identified as priority pollutants due to their toxicity and their ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify in the food chain. In particular, DDE was long believed to be &quotenon-biodegradable&quote, however some microorganisms have now been isolated that are able to metabolise DDE in pure culture. Terrabacter sp. strain DDE-1 was enriched from a DDT-contaminated agricultural soil from the Canterbury plains and is able to metabolise DDE to 4-chlorobenzoic acid when induced with biphenyl. The primary objective of this study was to identify the gene(s) responsible for Terrabacter sp. strain DDE-1�s ability to metabolise DDE and, in particular, to investigate the hypothesis that DDE-1 degrades DDE cometabolically via a biphenyl degradation pathway. Catabolism of biphenyl by strain DDE-1 was demonstrated, and a biphenyl degradation (bph) gene cluster containing bphDA1A2A3A4BCST genes was identified. The bphDA1A2A3A4BC genes are predicted to encode a biphenyl degradation upper pathway for the degradation of biphenyl to benzoate and cis-2-hydroxypenta-2,4-dienoate and the bphST genes are predicted to encode a two-component signal transduction system involved in regulation of biphenyl catabolism. The bph gene cluster was found to be located on a linear plasmid, designated pBPH1. A plasmid-cured strain (MJ-2) was unable to catabolise both biphenyl and DDE, supporting the hypothesis that strain DDE-1 degrades DDE cometabolically via the biphenyl degradation pathway. Furthermore, preliminary evidence from DDE overlayer agar plate assays suggested that Pseudomonas aeruginosa carrying the strain DDE-1 bphA1A2A3A4BC genes is able to catabolise DDE when grown in the presence of biphenyl. A second objective of this study was to characterise pBPH1. The complete 84,054-bp sequence of the plasmid was determined. Annotation of the DNA sequence data revealed seventy-six ORFs predicted to encode proteins, four pseudogenes, and ten gene fragments. Putative functions were assigned to forty-two of the ORF and pseudogenes. Besides biphenyl catabolism, the major functional classes of the predicted proteins were transposition, regulation, heavy metal transport/resistance, and plasmid maintenance and replication. It was shown that pBPH1 has the terminal structural features of an actinomycete invertron, including terminal proteins and terminal inverted repeats (TIRs). This is the first report detailing the nucleotide sequence and characterisation of a (linear) plasmid from the genus Terrabacter.