Sanitation provision can in many low-income countries be regarded as a complex collective action problem, and is often managed through complex actor constellations. The theory of ‘polycentric order’ has been proposed for the governance of such constellations, describing ordered systems of interacting but autonomous actors. However, empirical data is largely lacking on how this concept can be applied to contribute to governance analysis in low-economy contexts. This paper uses polycentric systems theory to combine a broad assessment of system order with an evaluation of functional aspects associated with polycentricity. The theories are tested against a case study of the sanitation planning and implementation system of Kampala, Uganda, where responsibilities are split between multi-level authorities, NGOs, private sector actors and local landlords. Interviews with sector representatives indicate a system which is largely polycentric, but also to some extent lacks the essential aspect of common and enforced rules. While the diverse set of actors do show adaptive capacity, the analysis exemplifies how this capacity may give sub-optimal or even counteractive solutions if not matched by relevant incentive mechanisms at each level. Furthermore, the actor diversity is found to give enhanced capacity and sometimes function as a flexible ‘safety net’ in service provision, but also risk giving adverse effects in terms of equity and distribution. While some of these outlined problems may be alleviated by well-designed institutions, others are expected to come at a trade-off between flexibility and stability in actor roles. Conclusively, this study gives an empirical illustration of how a polycentric perspective can allow for a wider analysis of systemic problems in a decentralized, low-income governance context.

This case study explores climate change coping and adaptation strategies in an agriculture- dependent community in the Panchkhal Valley in Nepal that suffered from five years of drought between 2004 and 2009. Based on fieldwork and interviews in Panchkhal 2011–2012, it explores how drought, combined with an ongoing process of agricultural commercialization and intensification, lead to a situation of ‘double exposure’ for Panchkhal farmers. As a consequence, current development policies based on the intensification and commercialization of agriculture may both support and undermine climate change adaptation in important ways. For instance, access to markets and a monetary income facilitated coping and adaptation, while dependence on agrochemicals led to increased vulnerability and environmental deterioration at the local level. Furthermore, none of the reported coping and adaptation strategies were able to provide the agricultural system in Panchkhal with sufficient amounts of water during the drought. While community organizations and NGOs were reported to play important roles in facilitating adaptation and mediating support at the time of the drought, government support was regarded to be insufficient. Coping and adaptation projects were often launched by local level actors, but these projects were dependent on resources from other administrative scales for their realization. 'Scale brokers', organizations or individuals that are able to mobilize support from other scales, hence appear to be a critical part for realizing adaptation projects.

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