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The empirical study of grace, a relational virtue nestled within the fields of positive psychology and the psychology of religion and spirituality, has had a relatively slow start. Since research on experiences of grace is in the beginning stages, the purpose of the current study was to provide rich, context-based, qualitative data to describe (a) mainline Protestants' experiences of, and beliefs about, grace (e.g., common grace, justifying/saving grace, sanctifying grace, accepting grace), (b) how mainline Protestant Christians experience the interplay between divine grace and forgiveness (i.e., self-forgiveness, other-forgiveness), and (c) how mainline Protestant Christians experience the interplay between divine grace and humility. Interviews were conducted with 28 community adults who were affiliated with a mainline Protestant church. Results indicated that mainline Protestant Christians have varying beliefs about divine grace and how it is related to both the present moment and the afterlife. Divine grace was often defined as, or associated with, other relational virtues (e.g., forgiveness, love), and participants occasionally defined grace as a gift. Divine grace was further described as being instrumental in mainline Protestant Christians' experiences of (a) self-forgiveness, (b) other-forgiveness, (c) acknowledgement of personal weaknesses and limitations, and (d) connecting with others who are different. I conclude by discussing my findings in light of the present literature on divine grace.

This paper analyzes and compares the effectiveness of the correctional systems in the United States of America and Europe, with some emphasis on Scandinavia. To make the comparison, I looked at previous research on the correctional systems in the United States and Europe. I reviewed articles from PsycInfo EBSCO Host and Google Scholar. The main points of comparison used are recidivism rates and rehabilitation services offered by the prisons in different countries. The results of this comparison show that countries that offer better rehabilitation services in the prison system, like Scandinavian countries, have lower recidivism rates than the United States, where the focus is on punishment rather than rehabilitation. Research has been done before on countries individually, but there is not enough research comparing correctional systems among nations. The purpose of this paper was to expand the available literature comparing these different correctional systems.

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The biosynthetic enzymes involved in wall teichoic acid biogenesis in Grampositive bacteria have been the subject of renewed investigation in recent years with the benefit of modem tools of biochemistry and genetics. Nevertheless, there have been only limited investigations into the enzymes that glycosylate wall teichoic acid. Decades-old experiments in the model Gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus subtilis 168, using phage resistant mutants implicated tagE (also called gtaA and rodD) as the gene coding for the wall teichoic acid glycosyltransferase. This study and others have provided only indirect evidence to support a role for TagE in wall teichoic acid glycosylation. In this work, we showed that deletion of tagE results in the loss of a-glucose at the C-2 position of glycerol in the poly(glycerol phosphate) polymer backbone. We also report the first kinetic characterization of pure, recombinant wall teichoic acid glycosyltransferase using clean synthetic substrates. We investigated the substrate specificity ofTagE using a wide variety of acceptor substrates and showed that this enzyme has a strong kinetic preference for the transfer of glucose from UDP-glucose to glycerol phosphate in polymeric form. Further, we showed that the enzyme recognizes its polymeric (and repetitive) substrate with a sequential kinetic mechanism. This work provides direct evidence that TagE is the wall teichoic acid glycosyltransferase in B. subtilis 168 and provides a strong basis for further studies on the mechanism of wall teichoic acid glycosylation, a largely uncharted aspect of wall teichoic acid biogenesis. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

No / This chapter opens with a review of current conceptualizations of child well-being and a good childhood. It moves on to consider the origins and driving forces influencing the development of the field of child indicators. The incorporation of children’s subjective perspectives in measuring and monitoring their well-being is highlighted along with the concomitant challenges posed by this welcome development. Recent evidence from a quantitative survey which consulted children found three key determinants of child well-being. Their relationships with family and positive relationships with friends were positive influences while peer bullying negatively affected their well-being. Bearing these findings in mind, a body of qualitative research findings where children were central informants was selected for an in-depth examination of how these three key areas impacted upon their well-being. The studies included children in the general population, children living in different family types, children with special needs, children living in families experiencing difficulties, as well as children living in out-of-home care. Throughout the qualitative studies, there was clear evidence of the importance of relationships with family and friends. Children’s close relationships with both were characterized by a sense of trust. Shared activities were the vehicles for developing trust and learning about negotiation with others. Where children lived in different family types, the quality of their relationships rather than the structure was the critical factor. Acceptance and having close relationships with family and friends were equally important to children with special needs. Children living in families experiencing difficulties often had to balance feelings of loyalty to their parents with feeling unsafe and insecure at times. Developing and maintaining friendships was particularly challenging for these children. We gained a glimpse of the dilemmas these children face which should inform the development of support strategies. Finally, children in out-of-home care highlighted the importance of being able to develop trust in their social workers and carers and the impact of multiple moves of home and school on these developing relationships. Bullying and the fear of bullying was highlighted by the children in all of these circumstances as a constant preoccupation in their daily lives. One of the key messages from these studies was just how prevalent this issue is and how much of children’s energies are focused on preventing or combating it. Apart from seeking the support of parents, the development of strong friendships was viewed as the most successful strategy. On a more general note, children’s agency in their relationships and in keeping safe was clearly evident. It is argued that studies which place children’s perspectives at the center have an important part to play in informing policy development.

Athletes from an array of sports and military personnel often desire weight gain, ideally as lean body mass (LBM), to improve performance in sport or military operations. These athletic individuals are commonly encouraged to increase energy intake by ~500 kcal/day with an emphasis on adequate protein and carbohydrate (CHO) and judicious inclusion of healthy fat-containing energy-dense foods (including nuts/nut butters), along with rigorous resistance training (RT). These guidelines target gains of ~0.23 kg/wk (0.5 lb/wk). However, little is known about the efficacy of such regimens, particularly in female athletes. Purpose: 1) to evaluate the outcomes of a 10-wk diet and exercise regimen designed to promote healthy weight gain with excess energy from protein- or CHO-dominant foods, 2) to determine the predictors of weight gain under these conditions, and 3) to survey the methods that athletes currently use to achieve weight gain for athletic purposes. Methods: Two projects included 19 male and 13 female athletes (from a variety of athletic backgrounds with previous RT experience; mean age 25±6 years) who were randomly assigned to receive 500 additional kcal/day above weight maintenance diet through provision of either peanut-based whole foods/snacks (PNT group) or a similar, high-CHO, peanut-free snack (CHO group) along with a supervised RT regimen (60 to 120 min, 3 day/wk targeting major muscle groups). Body composition (via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry), basic anthropometric measurements, resting metabolic rate, hormonal profile, muscular strength, aerobic fitness (VO2max), and food intake records were assessed at baseline (BSL) and post-intervention with some measurements also assessed at weeks 3 and 7. Predictors of weight gain were determined following the intervention. A third project included an online survey with targeted questions regarding athletes' habits for promoting weight gain. Results: 1) Total body mass (TBM) increased 2.2±1.3 kg with 1.5±1.1 kg as LBM after week 10. The PNT group (n=16; 10 men, 6 women) gained less TBM than the CHO group (n=16; 9 men, 7 women) (1.6±1.1 kg vs 2.7±1.2 kg, respectively, P=0.007) with no differences in LBM (1.2±1.1 kg vs 1.9±1.0 kg, P=0.136). 2) 15 (47% women) of 32 participants gained at least 2.27 kg after 10 weeks with 70% as LBM. Over time, from linear mixed effects models, increased free thyroxine (T4) and increased blood urea nitrogen concentration (as a marker of protein intake) predicted TBM and LBM gains. From general linear models, the CHO energy surplus was a significant predictor of TBM and LBM gains, while the female sex alone was significant for LBM gains at study completion. 3) 168 athletic participants (mean age 24±5 years; 29% female, 71% male) completed the survey and were actively attempting or had attempted weight gain in the last 12 months to gain muscle mass (87.5%), for aesthetic reasons (66.1%), or to improve athletic performance (63.7%). The most prevalent dietary strategies reported to help promote weight gain were consuming more energy than usual (88.0%) from mainly protein foods (83.9%) and using protein powders (67.3). 9.6% of participants reported using anabolic hormones. The main exercise change was increased RT (81.5%). Conclusions: 1) These results suggest that the addition of 500 kcal/day from whole foods/snacks in combination with a rigorous RT program promotes a similar weight gain of ~0.22 kg/week, primarily as LBM, over 10 weeks in both male and female athletes. However, snack macronutrient content may impact the effectiveness of this regimen. 2) Factors that predict ability to gain body weight as expected under these circumstances are incorporating a CHO-dominant energy surplus, consuming overall adequate protein (~1.6 g/kg/day), and free T4 status. Furthermore, athletic women are able to gain LBM as effectively as athletic men. 3) Results confirm that both male and female athletic individuals intentionally attempt to gain weight. Nutrition and exercise professionals may use the findings to be aware of these common dietary and exercise strategies and to better educate their athletic clients on appropriate methods that are evidence-based and not detrimental to health. / Doctor of Philosophy / Athletes from different sports, including military members, often want to gain weight, mainly as muscle, to improve their athletic performance (for example, strength and power) or to match the opposing team's size. Current sports nutrition recommendations include eating ~500 kcal more each day from carbohydrate (CHO), protein, and healthy fats in combination with hard weightlifting. These recommendations support a slow weight gain of about 0.5 lb to 1 lb per week, which should mostly be muscle. However, these recommendations have not been well studied, particularly in female athletes. Purpose: 1) to study purposeful overfeeding with weightlifting for 10 weeks to promote healthy weight gain with extra calories from either high-protein or high-CHO foods, 2) to figure out what factors are responsible for healthy weight gain under these conditions, and 3) to survey the methods that athletes currently use to achieve weight gain for athletic purposes. Methods: Two projects included 19 male and 13 female athletes (from a variety of athletic backgrounds with previous weightlifting experience; mean age 25±6 years) who overate 500 additional kcal/day from either peanut-based whole foods/snacks (PNT group) or a similar, high-CHO, peanut-free snack (CHO group) along with a supervised weightlifting regimen (60 to 120 min, 3 day/wk targeting major muscle groups). Body composition, metabolism, blood analyses, muscular strength, cardio fitness, and food intake records were done at the beginning and end with some measurements also done at weeks 3 and 7. Predictors of weight gain were studied later. A third project included an online survey with questions about athletes' habits for promoting weight gain. Results: 1) In all 32 participants, weight increased 4.8 lb (3.3 lb as muscle) after week 10. The PNT group (n=16; 10 men, 6 women) gained less weight than the CHO group (n=16; 9 men, 7 women) (3.5 lb vs 5.9 lb, respectively) with no differences in muscle (2.6 lb vs 4.2 lb). 2) An increased thyroid hormone (thyroxine) and increased blood urea nitrogen (as a marker of protein intake) predicted overall weight and muscle gains. From the beginning of the study, the CHO energy surplus was a significant predictor of weight and muscle gains, while the female sex alone was significant for muscle gains by the end of the study. 3) 168 athletic participants (mean age 24±5 years; 29% female, 71% male) completed the survey and were actively attempting or had attempted weight gain in the last 12 months to gain muscle (87.5%), to look better (66.1%), or to improve athletic performance (63.7%). The main dietary ways reported to help promote weight gain were eating more than usual (88.0%) from mainly protein-rich foods (83.9%) and using protein powders (67.3%). 9.6% of participants reported using anabolic hormones. The main exercise change was increased weightlifting (81.5%). Conclusions: 1) These results suggest that an extra 500 kcal/day from whole foods/snacks in combination with hard weightlifting promotes a similar weight gain of ~0.5 lb/week, mainly as muscle, over 10 weeks in both male and female athletes. 2) What affects healthy weight gain may be eating a CHO-dominant energy surplus, eating enough protein in general, and thyroid status. Furthermore, athletic women are able to gain muscle as effectively as athletic men. 3) Results confirm that both male and female athletic individuals try to gain weight. Nutrition and exercise experts may use these findings to be aware of these common nutrition and exercise strategies and to better educate their athletic clients on appropriate methods that are based on scientific experiments and not bad for health.

This study explores the influence of employee perception of acquisition success and the dispositional antecedents of positive affect and adaptive coping on employee- organization commitment during the 60-day period following a business acquisition. Allen & Meyer's affective, normative and continuance model of commitment was used for the dependent variables. A single sample was analyzed using a hierarchical regression approach. The survey was conducted with TRW's GIT Division, and included 51 employees who participated in three web- based surveys. The surveys were administered at (a) the change of control date, (b) 30 days, and (c) 60 days after the change of control date. Through a full- model regression, the combined dispositional and demographic variables were found to have a significant impact on the three components of employee- organization commitment. Specifically, the dispositional attribute of positive affect had a statistically significant predictive relationship to affective and normative commitment. Employee perception of acquisition success was found to have limited influence only on affective commitment, and finally, company service was determined to have a small predictive value for continuance commitment. The changing nature of the relationships between the independent variables and the dependents over time led to the conclusion that the employee sample was experiencing several symptoms of merger syndrome during the initial post- acquisition time period. As a single case, the study cannot be considered conclusive, however, the study does provide insights into the changing nature of employee- organization commitment during a specific time of organizational change. Research into additional dispositional antecedents to employee commitment is suggested, as well as further research on employee commitment after the initial 60-day post- acquisition integration period. / Ph. D.

The inquiry is a hermeneutic historical study of the historical factors in the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski which contributed to the shaping of his Theory of Positive Disintegration. Relatively little information has been written on the life and theory of Kazimierz Dabrowski. The researcher contends that knowledge of Dabrowski, the man, will aid in an understanding of his theory. The journey in which an individual "develops" to the level at which "the other" becomes a higher concern than the self, is the "stuff" of Kazimierz Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration. It is a paradoxical theory of human development, based on the premise that "good can follow from bad." Crisis and suffering act as the propellents into an internal as well as external battle with self and environment to move out of the "what is" and travel to the "what ought to be." Illuminated within this study, is how the life of Dabrowski demonstrates this moral and psychic struggle. Data collection for this qualitative study was accomplished over a four year period through a "deep" reading of the works of Dabrowski and a search for biographical material. The researcher was the first to utilize a ten volume file on Dabrowski housed in the National Archives of Ottawa in Canada which houses a plethora of Dabrowski's books and papers. The researcher, following a hermeneutic research approach, traveled to Poland to "walk in Dabrowski's footsteps." Within this journey, the researcher utilized the facilities of many archives in Poland - at libraries, and within prisons. Given the researcher's Polish heritage, a basic knowledge of the Polish language aided the researcher greatly in these endeavors. The journey served to deepen the researcher's understanding of Dabrowski, the man - his history and his country. Finally, the researcher interviewed several of Dabrowski's friends, co-authors, students and associates. This study serves as a baseline endeavor for additional research. The researcher's purpose was to aid in understanding Dabrowski - the man and his theory. The research journey was an attempt by the researcher to keep alive and renew interest in a theory of human development that is in danger of being forgotten. / Ph. D.

There is plenty of research on effects of negative stereotypes on performance, but less is known about effects of positive stereotypes. Research examining effects of positive stereotypes on performance has found mixed, often competing, results; positive stereotypes have been shown to lead to performance decrements, performance boosts, both boosts and decrements, or neither. One goal of the current study was to examine how domain identification, mode of stereotype activation, group membership of social referents, and valence of performance feedback (i.e. threat salience antecedents) influence whether positive stereotypes harm or benefit performance. I asserted that different combinations of the aforementioned variables would result in differential levels of threat salience, which I define as feelings of stress or pressure that arise from a dynamic interplay between performance motivation, anxiety and self-efficacy. Furthermore, as threat salience increased performance boosts from the positively stereotyped identity were expected to decrease and eventually lead to performance decrements. I also aimed to pinpoint the exact condition, or level of threat salience, that would lead to the switch from performance boosts to performance decrements (i.e. a tipping point). The threat salience antecedents of social referent’s group membership and feedback valence were combined to create a 2 (male/negative feedback vs female/positive feedback) X 2 (implicit activation vs explicit activation) design with a measured causal antecedent (domain identification). Participants took part in a laboratory study utilizing the positive stereotype that females are better than males at verbal ability tasks. Before arriving to the lab, participants were required to complete measures of verbal ability domain identification. Upon arrival to the lab, participants completed one trial of verbal ability items before being exposed to one of the four combinations of threat salience antecedents; following the manipulations, participants completed a subsequent trial of verbal ability items. The results of the study did not support the hypotheses; greater threat salience was not found to lead to worse performance nor was there support for a tipping point whereby performance boosts shifted to performance decrements. Possible reasons for null findings are discussed along with implications of exploratory analyses. / Master of Science / Research on the impact of positive stereotypes on performance has often resulted in mixed conclusions, with some research finding evidence for performance boosts, some finding evidence for performance decrements, and some finding both or neither. The current study sought to demonstrate that certain variables (i.e. domain identification, mode of stereotype activation, group membership of social referents, and valence of performance feedback) impact whether positive stereotypes lead to increases or decreases in performance outcomes through presenting differential threat salience. Threat salience essentially being feelings of pressure or worry about contradicting a positive stereotype; said feelings are believed to be the result of a dynamic interplay between motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety about performance outcomes. I hypothesized that as threat salience increased then performance would decrease, eventually causing performance boosts from positive stereotypes to switch to performance decrements. Furthermore, I aimed to identify the exact level of threat salience that resulted in a switch from performance boosts to performance decrements (i.e. a tipping point). The study results did not provide support for the hypotheses, nor was I able to identify a tipping point whereby performance switched from boosts to decrements. Implications of exploratory analyses are discussed, along with possible explanations for null findings.