No description available.

Trap-jaw ants are characterized by high-speed mandibles used for prey capture and defense. Power-amplified mandibles have independently evolved at least four times among ants, with each lineage using different structures as a latch, spring and trigger. We examined two species from the genus Myrmoteras (subfamily Formicinae), whose morphology is unique among trap-jaw ant lineages, and describe the performance characteristics, spring-loading mechanism and neuronal control of Myrmoteras strikes. Like other trap-jaw ants, Myrmoteras latch their jaws open while the large closer muscle loads potential energy in a spring. The latch differs from other lineages and is likely formed by the co-contraction of the mandible opener and closer muscles. The cuticle of the posterior margin of the head serves as a spring, and is deformed by approximately 6% prior to a strike. The mandibles are likely unlatched by a subgroup of closer muscle fibers with particularly short sarcomeres. These fast fibers are controlled by two large motor neurons whose dendrites overlap with terminals of large sensory neurons originating from labral trigger hairs. Upon stimulation of the trigger hairs, the mandibles shut in as little as 0.5 ms and at peak velocities that are comparable with other trap-jaw ants, but with much slower acceleration. The estimated power output of the mandible strike (21 kW kg(-1)) confirms that Myrmoteras jaws are indeed power amplified. However, the power output of Myrmoteras mandibles is significantly lower than distantly related trap-jaw ants using different spring-loading mechanisms, indicating a relationship between power-amplification mechanism and performance.

No description available.

No description available.

For many animals, rapid movements place high power demands on underlying muscles. Storage of muscle energy in elastic structures and the subsequent rapid release of that energy can effectively amplify muscle power. Elastic recoil can also confer thermal robustness to performance in behaviors occurring at variable temperatures. Muscle contractile performance tends to decrease at lower temperatures, but elastic recoil is less affected by temperature. Here I examine the impacts of temperature and scale in systems using elastic recoil and I explore possible interactive effects on movement performance. I explored the role that muscle contractile properties play in the differences in performance and thermal robustness between elastic and non-elastic systems by examining muscles from two species of plethodontid salamanders with elastically powered tongue projection and one with non-elastic tongue projection. These salamanders use tongue projection to capture prey and in species with elastic mechanisms, tongue projection is characterized by higher mechanical power output and thermal robustness compared to tongue projection of closely-related genera with non-elastic mechanisms. In vitro and in situ muscle experiments reveal that species differ in their muscle contractile properties, but these patterns do not predict the performance differences between elastic and non-elastic tongue projection. Overall, salamander tongue muscles are like other vertebrate muscles in contractile performance and thermal sensitivity. I conclude that changes in the tongue-projection mechanism, specifically the elaboration of elastic structures, are responsible for high performance and thermal robustness in species with elastic tongue projection. This suggests that the evolution of high-performance and thermally robust elastic-recoil mechanisms can occur via relatively simple changes to morphology, while muscle contractile properties remain relatively unchanged. The efficacy of elastic recoil in the face of changing temperature depends on the mechanical work done by muscle contraction being unaffected by temperature. In vitro stimulation of Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) plantaris muscles reveals that interactions between force and temperature affect the mechanical work of muscle. At low temperatures (9 – 17°C), muscle work depends on temperature when shortening at any force, and temperature effects are greater at higher forces. At warmer temperatures (13 – 21°C), muscle work depends on temperature when shortening with intermediate and high forces (≥ 30% peak isometric tetanic force). Shortening velocity is most strongly affected by temperature at low temperatures and high forces. Power is also most strongly affected at low temperature intervals but this effect is minimized at intermediate forces. Effects of temperature on muscle force explain these interactions; force production decreases at lower temperatures, increasing the challenge of moving a constant force relative to the muscle’s capacity. These results suggest that animal performance that requires muscles to do work with low forces relative to a muscle’s maximum force production will be robust to temperature changes, and this effect should be true whether muscle acts directly or through elastic-recoil mechanisms and whether force is prescribed (i.e. internal) or variable (i.e. external). Conversely, performance requiring muscles to shorten with relatively large forces is expected to be more sensitive to temperature changes. How muscle work and power scale determines, in part, the scaling of movement performance. Muscle-mass-specific work is predicted to remain constant across a range of scales, assuming geometric similarity, while muscle-mass-specific power is expected to decrease with increasing scale. I tested these predictions by examining muscle morphology and contractile properties of plantaris muscles from frogs ranging in mass from 1.28 to 20.60 g. Scaling of muscle work and power was examined using both linear regression on log10-transformed data (LR) and non-linear regressions on untransformed data (NLR). In LR, muscle-mass-specific work decreased with increasing scale, but this is counteracted by a positive allometry of muscle mass to predict constant movement performance at all scales. These relationships were non-significant in NLR, though scaling with geometric similarity also predicts constant jump performance across scales. Both intrinsic shortening velocity and muscle-mass-specific power were positively allometric in both types of analysis. However, these differences between methods are caused not by large changes in scaling slopes, but by changing levels of statistical significance using corrections for multiple tests. The dependence of these conclusions on the method of regression, largely because of the setting and adjusting of an arbitrary alpha, demonstrates the importance of careful consideration of statistical methods when analyzing patterns of scaling. Nonetheless, scale accounts for little variation in contractile properties over the range of scales examined, indicating that other sources of intraspecific variation may be more important in determining muscle performance and its effects on movement. Elastic recoil used for power amplification is most often found in smaller animals, suggesting that performance in larger animals using less elastic recoil would be affected more by changing temperatures. To examine the interaction between scale and temperature on performance, I recorded jumps from 1-34 g Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) at 10, 20, and 30°C and compared jump performance to predictions based on the effects of temperature and scaling on muscle properties. High muscle-mass-specific power requirements from measured jumps indicate that frogs use elastic recoil at all scales to achieve performance that would be impossible using only muscle, and elastic recoil allows small frogs to achieve the same level of performance as large frogs. Performance that is greater at all temperatures than predictions from models using only muscle power could result from some combination of elastic recoil and power directly from muscle. The relative contributions of muscle power and elastic recoil cannot be discerned by examining temperature effects on performance because these effects are predicted to be so similar. Predicted performance from models of elastic recoil is significantly affected by changing temperature at all scales with temperature coefficient (Q10) values similar to predictions for muscle-powered jumping. Measured Q10 values are similar to those from both predictive models and there is no interaction between temperature and scale. Therefore, elastic recoil allows for jump performance that could not be achieved by muscle power alone at all temperatures and scales, but performance predictions from elastic recoil are not more thermally robust than predictions for muscle-powered jumping.

No description available.

Le travail réalisé au cours de cette thèse porte sur l’optimisation du transistor bipolaire à hétérojonction Si/SiGe:C pour les applications d’amplification de puissance pour les communications sans fils. Nous présentons tout d’abord la structure d’étude. Il s’agit du transistor bipolaire à hétérojonction Si/SiGe:C intégré en technologie BiCMOS 0.25µm sur plaques 200mm. La cellule dédiée à l’amplification de puissance est présentée. Une attention particulière est apportée aux phénomènes thermiques inhérents à ce type de cellules ainsi qu’aux solutions mises en œuvre pour les atténuer. Les diverses optimisations réalisées sur l’architecture du TBH sont détaillées. Ces optimisations touchent à la fois à la modification du procédé technologique et au dessin du transistor. Notre étude porte sur l’amélioration des performances petit et grand signal via l’optimisation des paramètres technologiques définissant la structure épitaxiale intrinsèque de base et de collecteur ainsi que des règles de dessin du transistor. Enfin, deux types d’architectures de TBH développées sont présentées. L’une de type simple polysilicium quasi auto-alignée qui s’intègre dans une technologie dédiée à l’amplification de puissance, l’autre présentant une structure double polysilicium également auto-alignée. / The present work deals with Si/SiGe:C heterojonction bipolar transistor optimization for power amplifier applications dedicated to wireless communications. We first present the investigated structure, a Si/SiGe:C heterojonction bipolar transistor integrated in a 0.25µm BiCMOS technology on 200 mm wafers. We discuss the cell dedicated to power amplification. We have paid attention to thermal phenomenon linked to this kind of cell and to possible dedicated solutions. Various optimizations realized on HBT architecture are detailed. These optimizations concern technological process modifications and transistor design. The main objective of this work is to improve both large and small signal characteristics. This is obtained by transistor design rule variations, collector and base intrinsic parameters optimization. Finally, two kind of developed HBT architectures are presented. One, simple polysilicium quasi self aligned, integrated in a technology dedicated to power amplification, the other one fully self aligned with double polysilicium structure.

Cette thèse porte sur l’analyse et la conception de générateurs de fréquence millimétrique à faible bruit de phase destinés à des applications de communication sans fil de très haut débit sur une technologie BiCMOS 0.25m. Spécifiquement, des applications backhauling sont visées sur le protocole de communication P2P (point-to-point), pour un système de radio hétérodyne (à faible fréquence intermédiaire) approprié pour les bandes entre 30–38GHz et de faible profondeur de modulation (2-3 bits /symbole). Une étude rigoureuse du comportement du bruit de phase en 1/f2 d’un oscillateur contrôlé en tension (du type paire différentielle croisée) en fonction de la fréquence d’oscillation est développée. Des facteurs essentiels pour la conception de ces oscillateurs tels que la plage de fréquence et la charge de la paire croisée sur le résonateur sont pris en compte dans l’analyse. L’étude révèle que lorsque la fréquence augmente, l’oscillateur passe à travers deux régimes d’opération différents, ici appelés région QL-limited et région QC- limited, qui résultent de la dépendance du facteur de qualité du résonateur à sa partie inductive (pour les basses fréquences d’oscillation) et sa partie capacitive (pour les hautes fréquences d’oscillation). De plus, l’impact de la plage de fréquence sur l’évolution du bruit de phase en 1/f2 a été considéré en utilisant un circuit classique à base d’un varactor et d’un condensateur du type MiM. Des équations simples et précises ont été calculées pour les paramètres du circuit afin d’obtenir une fréquence centrale souhaitée avec la variation de la capacité requise. Pour ce circuit, il a été démontré (et vérifié à travers des simulations du circuit) que le pire scénario du facteur de qualité peut être associé à la constante de temps d’un condensateur. Ce dernier a permis d’estimer aisément le facteur de qualité minimal de la partie capacitive du résonateur LC de l’oscillateur, pour une plage de fréquence donnée, en fonction de la fréquence d’oscillation. D’une manière similaire, et basée sur une analyse à petit signal, la constante de temps de la capacité de sortie de la paire croisé a été déterminée. Notamment cette constante de temps présente un comportement constant sur une large gamme de fréquences, ce qui permet d’évaluer facilement son facteur de qualité. Cette étude fournit les bases théoriques qui permettent l’évaluation du bruit de phase en 1/f2 d’une source de signal basée sur un oscillateur en mode fondamental, super-harmonique ou sous-harmonique. En effet, la supériorité des oscillateurs sous-harmoniques est démontrée et des équations simples sont proposées pour déterminer la performance maximale et les conditions dans lesquelles elles peuvent être atteintes. Enfin, un système de génération de signal est ainsi conçu et vérifié par des mesures sur un prototype. Le système est composé d’un VCO sous-harmonique suivi d’un tripleur de fréquence (ILFT) –verrouillé par injection. Le circuit est implémenté sur une technologie SiGe:C BiCMOS 0.25 m. Le tripleur implémente une configuration à émetteur commun, polarisé en courant, qui exploite la seconde harmonique du VCO afin d’améliorer l’efficacité de la génération du signal responsable de verrouiller le ILFT. A 30.8 GHz, le système atteint un bruit de phase de -112 dBc/Hz à 1MHz d’offset. La consommation totale de courant est de 38mA pour une tension d’alimentation de 2.5V. Un deuxième prototype a été réalisé pour un système de génération multibande, offrant ainsi trois sorties RF à 18 GHz, 34GHz et 68 GHz. Avec une plage de fréquence de 10% (mesurée par rapport à la fréquence centrale) pour chaque sortie RF. Le bruit de phase mesuré à 1MHz d’offset est respectivement de -113dBc/Hz, -107dBc/Hz et -100dBc/Hz.. / This thesis deals with the analysis and design of Low phase Noise Local-Oscillator(LO) sources suitable for backhauling applications on the frequencies 30-38GHz. The LO is intended to be used in a low-IF architecture for low order modulations (2-3 bits/symbol). This work was developed in collaboration with NXP Semiconductorsat CAEN, France, within the project RF2THz of the European program CATRENE.The original contributions in this work include a rigorous study of the 1/f2 phasenoise characteristics of the VCO (bipolar cross-coupled pair Voltage-Controlled-Oscillator) with the oscillating frequency. Key factors in the design of VCOs such as tuning range and the tank load given by the cross-coupled pair are considered in the analysis. The study reveals that as the frequency scales, the VCO passes through two different zones, named the QL-limited and the QC-limited region, that results from the dependence of the resonator quality factor on its inductive part (for low oscillating frequencies) and its capacitive part (for high oscillating frequencies). Moreover, the impact of the tuning range on the 1/f2 phase noise evolution was captured by using a classical circuit based on an AC-coupled varactor and a MiM capacitor. Simple and accurate equations were derived for the circuit parameters in order to achieve a desired central frequency with the required capacitance variation. For this circuit, it is demonstrated (and verified through circuit simulations) that the lowest quality factor scenario can be associated to the time-constant of a lossy capacitor. The latter allows to estimate easily the minimum quality factor of the capacitive part of the VCO LC tank, for a given tuning range, as a function of the oscillating frequency. In a similar way, and based on a small signal analysis, the time-constant of the output capacitance of the bipolar cross-coupled pair was derived. Interesting, this time constant shows a constant behavior over a wide frequency range, thereby allowing to estimate easily its quality factor. This study set the bases for an analytical framework that enables the evaluation of the 1/f2 phase noise performances of local oscillator sources working either on fundamental,super-harmonic or sub-harmonic mode. The superiority in terms of 1/f2 phase noise of local oscillators based on sub-harmonic oscillators is thus demonstrated and simple equations are derived to determine the maximum performance and the conditions on which this can be achieved. Finally, a signal generation system intended for a low-IF point-to-point fixed radio system in the Ka-Band band is thus designed and verified through prototype measurements.The system is composed by a sub-harmonic VCO followed by an injectionlocked frequency tripler (ILFT) and it is designed in a 0.25m BiCMOS SiGe:C technology. The ILFT implements a cascode current-biased common emitter configuration that exploits the second harmonic of the VCO to enhance the efficiency in the generation of the injecting signal responsible for the ILFT locking. At 30.8GHz, the system achieves a phase noise of -112dBc/Hz at 1MHz offset. The total current consumption is 38mA for a supply voltage of 2.5V. A second prototype is designed for a multiband LO generation, providing thus three RF outputs at 18GHz, 34GHz and 68GHz. With a measured tuning range of 10% for each RF output, the measured phase noise at 1MHz is -113dBc/Hz, -107dBc/Hz and -100dBc/Hz respectively.