Research suggests there may be race, sex, and ability differences in score improvement on different selection tests and methods when retested (Schleicher, Van Iddekinge, Morgeson, & Campion, 2010). However, it is uncertain what individual differences moderate retest performance on GMA assessments, and why. In this study, 243 participants were retested on the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT). There was no evidence that race, sex, emotional stability, or conscientiousness moderate retest performance on the WPT, although SAT scores did positively predict retest performance. Individuals within the interquartile range of the initial WPT scores gained more when retested than those with more extreme scores. Establishing artificial cut-off levels demonstrated that those below the cut-off gained more when retested than those above the cut-off. Therefore, average-scorers and in some cases lower-scorers who may have failed to meet a predetermined cut-off are encouraged to re-test as they have little to lose and much to gain.

This dissertation investigated different factors contributing to age differences in working memory (WM) performance. Younger and older adults participated in five experiments, four on visuospatial WM (VSWM) and one on verbal WM. All addressed methodological issues that may differentially lower older adults’ performance. Experiments 1a and 1b manipulated the administration of a VSWM span task, with participants performing the task under either an ascending format (shortest sets presented first), or an interference-reducing descending format (longest sets presented first). Older adults’ performed significantly better in the descending compared to ascending format, consistent with an age-related susceptibility to proactive interference (PI). By contrast, younger adults did better in the ascending compared to descending condition, possibly due to their ability to benefit from practice and strategy use when easier trials are presented first. Experiment 2 considered how the similarity of task material influenced the build-up of PI and whether or not the combination of two PI-reducing manipulations (i.e., descending format and distinct trials) would further improve older adults’ performance. Distinctiveness helped older adults on the ascending format; however, combining distinct trials and a descending format provided no additional benefit. Experiment 3 considered whether or not synchronizing a VSWM task with an individual’s circadian arousal pattern would moderate interference effects, with the task administered at a peak or off-peak time of day. Peak-time administration improved older adults’ performance on the descending, but not the ascending, condition. Experiment 4 investigated the possibility that the serial order requirement of many WM tasks contributes to age differences in performance. Younger and older adults participated in a verbal WM span task – Operation Span - under either serial order or free recall instructions. Typical age differences were found when order but not free recall was required. Further analyses of the order condition data revealed that older adults were, in fact, recalling the items just as well as young adults, only not in the correct order. Taken together, the findings strongly suggest that age differences found on typical WM span tasks are influenced by numerous factors, such as task presentation, individual circadian arousal patterns, material similarity, and recall instructions.

This dissertation investigated different factors contributing to age differences in working memory (WM) performance. Younger and older adults participated in five experiments, four on visuospatial WM (VSWM) and one on verbal WM. All addressed methodological issues that may differentially lower older adults’ performance. Experiments 1a and 1b manipulated the administration of a VSWM span task, with participants performing the task under either an ascending format (shortest sets presented first), or an interference-reducing descending format (longest sets presented first). Older adults’ performed significantly better in the descending compared to ascending format, consistent with an age-related susceptibility to proactive interference (PI). By contrast, younger adults did better in the ascending compared to descending condition, possibly due to their ability to benefit from practice and strategy use when easier trials are presented first. Experiment 2 considered how the similarity of task material influenced the build-up of PI and whether or not the combination of two PI-reducing manipulations (i.e., descending format and distinct trials) would further improve older adults’ performance. Distinctiveness helped older adults on the ascending format; however, combining distinct trials and a descending format provided no additional benefit. Experiment 3 considered whether or not synchronizing a VSWM task with an individual’s circadian arousal pattern would moderate interference effects, with the task administered at a peak or off-peak time of day. Peak-time administration improved older adults’ performance on the descending, but not the ascending, condition. Experiment 4 investigated the possibility that the serial order requirement of many WM tasks contributes to age differences in performance. Younger and older adults participated in a verbal WM span task – Operation Span - under either serial order or free recall instructions. Typical age differences were found when order but not free recall was required. Further analyses of the order condition data revealed that older adults were, in fact, recalling the items just as well as young adults, only not in the correct order. Taken together, the findings strongly suggest that age differences found on typical WM span tasks are influenced by numerous factors, such as task presentation, individual circadian arousal patterns, material similarity, and recall instructions.

Dual task studies have found that Task 2 response information is activated during Task 1 response selection, and can have a priming effect on Task 1. This is called the backward compatibility effect (BCE). Giammarco et al. (2016) found that single-task practice of Task 2 in the context of a random, filler task (Practice-T2 condition) extinguished BCE development in a subsequent dual-task. On the other hand, practicing Task 2 in the context of Task 1 (Practice-Both condition) promoted BCE development in subsequent dual-tasks. Experiment 1a sought to replicate this context-specific disruption of BCE development by presenting participants with a single-task practice phase where they practiced Task 2 along with a filler task, and then observed BCE development in a subsequent dual-task phase. Experiment 1b addressed a counterbalancing issue in Experiment 1a. Experiment 2 was an exact replication of the Practice-T2 condition used in Giammarco et al. (2016). Overall, we conceptually replicated the context-specific disruption of BCE in Experiment 2, but not in Experiments 1a and 1b. Further study is warranted to determine the effect of specific response features on the learning context of Task 2. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Backward compatibility effects (BCEs) have been consistently observed in dual task paradigms. BCEs occur when Task 1 and Task 2 response information are congruent: participants respond faster to Task 1 when the two tasks require congruent responses than when they require incongruent ones. This suggests that there is some parallel processing of Task 2 while performing Task 1. The purpose of this study was to explore the episodic account of BCE development. Since episodic memories are context-specific, BCEs should also be context-specific, according to the episodic account. By manipulating the context of Task 2 learning, we tested whether this affected subsequent BCE development. Our findings suggest that context-specific disruption of BCE development is possible, but depends on other factors as well.

Background: Research suggests that musculoskeletal injury (MSI) influences cognitive functioning. Cognitive functioning following MSI in athletes is not evaluated currently. Purpose and Method: To examine cognitive deficit in athletes following musculoskeletal injuries, the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metric (ANAM) was administered to 22 varsity athletes prior to competition and following MSI. A healthy comparison group of 22 athletes was also tested at time intervals matched with the injured group. Results: A 2 (Group) X 2 (Time) repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant main effects for time on ANAM subtests of Delayed Code Substitution and Simple Reaction Time. Post-hoc Paired t-Tests revealed significant improvements in both groups for Simple Reaction Time, and a significant improvement for the comparison group on Match-to-Sample. Implications: Athletes with musculoskeletal injuries did not show cognitive deficit post-injury; however, the apparent absence of practice effects on a test of spatial processing and working memory requires further examination.

Background: Research suggests that musculoskeletal injury (MSI) influences cognitive functioning. Cognitive functioning following MSI in athletes is not evaluated currently. Purpose and Method: To examine cognitive deficit in athletes following musculoskeletal injuries, the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metric (ANAM) was administered to 22 varsity athletes prior to competition and following MSI. A healthy comparison group of 22 athletes was also tested at time intervals matched with the injured group. Results: A 2 (Group) X 2 (Time) repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant main effects for time on ANAM subtests of Delayed Code Substitution and Simple Reaction Time. Post-hoc Paired t-Tests revealed significant improvements in both groups for Simple Reaction Time, and a significant improvement for the comparison group on Match-to-Sample. Implications: Athletes with musculoskeletal injuries did not show cognitive deficit post-injury; however, the apparent absence of practice effects on a test of spatial processing and working memory requires further examination.