Experimental implementations of the Ultimatum Game are some of the most well studied economic experiments of the last twenty years. There are two popular explanations for why Proposers offer substantially more than the smallest positive amount of the pie. One is that the Proposers have other-regarding preferences and the other explanation is that Proposers are selfish, but fear rejection by Responders who will reject low offers. Most experiments that attempt to discriminate between these two explanations contrast behavior in the Ultimatum Game to behavior in the Dictator Game. The Dictator Game removes strategic concerns from the Ultimatum Game without substantially changing the predicted behavior of a selfish Proposer. Researchers thus believe that subtracting Dictator Game offers from Ultimatum Game offers isolates the fraction of average offers in the Ultimatum Game motivated by other-regarding preferences. In most Dictator Game experiments, Proposers offer less than they do in Ultimatum Games, but they still offer non-trivial positive amounts. This result has led analysts to posit that Proposer behavior in the Ultimatum Game is motivated in part by other-regarding preferences. There are, however, potential problems in drawing inferences about Proposer behavior in the Ultimatum Game from observations of Proposer behavior in the Dictator Game. First, it is well known that objectively irrelevant contextual details in experiments can affect subject behavior in systematic ways. Second, altruistic motivations are less costly to satisfy per monetary unit in the Ultimatum Game because each monetary unit offered to the Responder reduces the probability of rejection. Thus strategic motivations may be sufficient to explain behavior in the Ultimatum Game. In other words, a Proposer with altruistic preferences may offer the same amount of money as an identical Proposer who differs only in his lack of such preferences. In contrast to previous approaches that remove the strategic incentives in the Ultimatum Game, we remove the incentives for expressing other-regarding preferences. We do so through a treatment in which humans are paired with robots that, for each choice in the Proposer’s decision space, reject with the same frequency as humans in previous experiments. Proposers are aware they are playing with automata that are programmed to reject and accept as humans have done in previous implementations of the experiment. Under the mild assumption that humans do not express other-regarding preferences for fictional automata, this treatment presents an Ultimatum Game with only strategic motives operative. Note also that unlike previous attempts that use a different game to make inferences about behavior in the Ultimatum Game, we are able to measure the effects of strategic and other-regarding motives without changing the fundamental structure of the Ultimatum Game. Moreover, previous analyses do not formally include decision error as an important motivation for non-SPNE offers. To test for misunderstanding of the strategic environment, we develop a second treatment in which subjects play the Ultimatum Game with a robot Responder that rejects or accepts every offer with equal probability. If Proposers are truly thinking about Responder rejection rates in formulating their offers, they should offer $0 in this treatment.

The evolution of mate choice remains one of the most controversial topics within evolutionary biology. In particular, the coevolutionary dynamics between ornaments and mating preferences has been extensively studied, but few generalizations have emerged. From a theoretical standpoint, the nature of the genetic covariance built up by the process of mate choice has received considerable attention, though the models still make biologically unrealistic assumptions. Empirically, the difficulty of estimating parameters in the models has hindered our ability to understand what processes are occurring in nature. Thus, it is the goal of this dissertation to contribute to the field both theoretically and empirically. I begin with a review of the evolution of mate choice and demonstrate how the lack of cross-talk between theoretical and empirical pursuits into studying mate choice has constrained our ability to extract basic principles. The review is followed by a new model of intersexual selection that relaxes some of the critical assumptions inherent in sexual selection theory. There are two empirical studies whose goal is to measure mating preference functions and genetic correlations in a way that can be related back to theory. Finally, I conclude by setting the stage for future endeavors into exploring the evolution of mate choice. The results presented herein demonstrate four things: (i) a lack of communication between theoretical and empirical studies of mate choice; (ii) genetic drift plays a much larger role in preference evolution than previously demonstrated; (iii) genetic correlations other than those explicitly modeled are likely to be important in preference evolution; and (iv) variation in mating preferences can eliminate intersexual selection altogether. From these four findings it can be concluded that a tighter link between theory and empiricism is needed, with a particular emphasis on the importance of measuring individual-level preference functions. Models will benefit from integrating the specific phenotypes measured by empiricists. Experimentation will be more useful to theory if particular attention is paid to the exact phenotypes that are measured. Overall, this dissertation is a stepping stone for a more cohesive and accurate understanding of mate choice evolution.

This dissertation examines whether a nonconscious goal can change preferences between binary options, one favoring a conscious goal (e.g., undiluted but non-healthy iced tea) and the other a nonconscious goal (e.g., diluted but healthy iced tea). Across four laboratory experiments, we demonstrate that when participants are only given a conscious goal (e.g., to choose the tastier drink), the majority of them seek the alternative that is more instrumental to this goal. However, when a nonconscious goal is also primed (e.g., to be healthy), their preferences can shift to the alternative that is perceived to be instrumental to this goal but is inferior from the conscious goal standpoint. We propose a two-stage model to explain these findings. In the first stage, when a nonconscious goal is primed, individuals attend to goal-relevant cues (e.g., health-signaling label) and automatically form a positive evaluation toward the option that facilitates the nonconscious goal relative to the option that does not satisfy the goal. In the second stage, the positive automatic evaluation is then used to distort perceptions of the option’s conscious goal instrumentality such that the option is perceived as having a more favorable taste compared to when the goal is not primed. While the positive automatic evaluation influences the option’s taste, it does not affect the evaluation of the option’s other attributes (e.g., scent, color). By manipulating the timing of nonconscious goal activation and by adopting an evaluative conditioning task, we find support for our conceptual model while ruling out alternative explanations and identifying a boundary condition of task difficulty. The findings of the experiments contribute to the literature on nonconscious goals 1) by showing that these goals can play a central role in decision making when choice options pit them against conscious goals, and 2) by identifying a mechanism (i.e., attribute distortion) that can resolve goal competition in choice.

This dissertation examines whether a nonconscious goal can change preferences between binary options, one favoring a conscious goal (e.g., undiluted but non-healthy iced tea) and the other a nonconscious goal (e.g., diluted but healthy iced tea). Across four laboratory experiments, we demonstrate that when participants are only given a conscious goal (e.g., to choose the tastier drink), the majority of them seek the alternative that is more instrumental to this goal. However, when a nonconscious goal is also primed (e.g., to be healthy), their preferences can shift to the alternative that is perceived to be instrumental to this goal but is inferior from the conscious goal standpoint. We propose a two-stage model to explain these findings. In the first stage, when a nonconscious goal is primed, individuals attend to goal-relevant cues (e.g., health-signaling label) and automatically form a positive evaluation toward the option that facilitates the nonconscious goal relative to the option that does not satisfy the goal. In the second stage, the positive automatic evaluation is then used to distort perceptions of the option’s conscious goal instrumentality such that the option is perceived as having a more favorable taste compared to when the goal is not primed. While the positive automatic evaluation influences the option’s taste, it does not affect the evaluation of the option’s other attributes (e.g., scent, color). By manipulating the timing of nonconscious goal activation and by adopting an evaluative conditioning task, we find support for our conceptual model while ruling out alternative explanations and identifying a boundary condition of task difficulty. The findings of the experiments contribute to the literature on nonconscious goals 1) by showing that these goals can play a central role in decision making when choice options pit them against conscious goals, and 2) by identifying a mechanism (i.e., attribute distortion) that can resolve goal competition in choice.

Problem: What are Thai consumers’ perceptions toward sugar confectionery  products, which are sold as loose candy (lösgodis) in Sweden? Purpose: The aim of this study is to identify and describe the perception of Thai consumers toward sugar confectionery products with the concept of loose candy (lösgodis) by putting an emphasis on the preferences of product features and the choices of product as well as explore the similarities and differences of each demographic and psychographic group. Method: Method included a collection of information concerning theories. model and confectionery market information from different sources; interview with the candy store owner to figure out market insight as well as related information and the survey with a sample of respondents in order to investigate their perception and preferences of the sugar confectionery products. The retrieved data was analyzed statistically and theoretically in accordance with the conceptual framework. Result: The findings indicated that the majority of Thai people like to consume candy. By allowing consumers to perceive and evaluate candy features through different senses, the result revealed that colorful soft gummy fruity flavors candy with a shape of eatable product together with a uniquely stand-out sweets smell are most preferable. After examining the similarities and differences among the demographic and psychographic groups of consumer regarding their perception and preferences of sugar confectionery products, only minimal differences were found.

Functional recovery of the upper limb after stroke is influenced by many factors, one being amount of affected arm and hand use following stroke. In the healthy population, amount of hand use is influenced by degree of hand dominance. Depending on side of stroke and previous hand dominance, these preferences may be altered, consequently affecting the amount of upper limb use. Determining hand preference in patients after stroke, when measured, is commonly assessed with questionnaires; however, these reports are subjective and patients may have difficulty recalling from memory which hand they use for the numerous activities on the questionnaire. A preferential reaching task has been shown to correlate with the degree of hand dominance as determined by the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire, providing an objective performance-based method to assess the continuum of hand dominance in healthy subjects. A modified version of this preferential reaching task, with varying degrees of proximal to distal control, was used to investigate the influence of impairment, pre-stroke dominance and task difficulty on affected arm reach percentage. Results of the study revealed that it is feasible to administer a modified preferential reaching task in the stroke population, as the test could be completed in less than 10 minutes with no adverse effects reported from the patients. Heterogeneity made it difficult to detect statistical effects of task difficulty and pre-stroke dominance on post-stroke preference; however, there were trends observed indicating that patients with their dominant arm affected may have greater preference for the affected arm compared to those with their non-dominant arm affected. This was despite similar impairment levels between these patient groups. Preference for the dominant arm (whether affected or unaffected) was stronger when the task was at midline or in contralateral space, and when tasks required the greatest degree of distal control. In future, the degree of hand preference measured with this tool will have important implications for identifying areas in therapy requiring greater focus as well as identifying individuals who would most benefit from therapies that promote affected arm use, such as constraint induced movement therapy

The relationship between humans and the quality of the environment have been examined primarily through two conceptual constructs: landscape aesthetics and place attachment or emotional place bonding. The former focuses on the physical environment and the latter focuses on the emotional or symbolic environment. This study focused on understanding the relationship between the two constructs, and provided a framework to integrate them toward a more comprehensive visual preference for landscapes. Nasar’s (1989) symbolic model was used as a guiding concept in the study. A web-based survey was used to collect people’s responses to landscapes portrayed in photographs. Four primary measures were used in the survey: landscape aesthetic, typicality (to a national park), emotional place bonding, and landscape visual preference. To further examine the effect of place meaning on responses to landscapes, respondents were told during the survey that landscape pictures were taken from different places, which were assigned randomly as place labels (national park, commercial recreation area, local park, and scenic area). Results indicated that emotional place bonding was significantly and positively influenced by perceived landscape aesthetics through four components: complexity, mystery, coherence, and legibility. Complexity and mystery had more influence on emotional place bonding than the other two components. Results also provided empirical support for Nasar’s (1989) symbolic model. The effect of landscape aesthetics on landscape visual preference was partially mediated by typicality and emotional place bonding. The typicality of a scene to a national park was found to positively influence people’s emotional bonding to the place. The four randomly assigned place labels did not elicit significantly different preferences or emotional responses to the places. This study documented how landscape aesthetics and emotional bonding can be integrated into visual preferences for landscapes. Results also provided evidence for the potential to use emotional bonding information to manage physical landscapes. The study contributes to our understanding and can assist with environment planning and management. Both physical appearance and symbolic/emotional meaning are very important to human perceptions of landscapes, and other attempts should be made to understand how the two constructs contribute to visual preference in future research.

This research is a study of residential preferences and moving tendency of teachers in public schools in Kaohsiung who applied for retirement in 2003. It is intended to find out if there is any influence of personal backgrounds or needs of the subjects on their residential preferences and moving tendency, if their preferences are personal or environmental and if they find the current residences ideal¡Xif they do, what are the characteristics of their ideal residences and if not, what are the reasons for them to move? Moreover, if they decided to stay where they are now living even when not satisfied with the residences, what are the reasons that stop them from moving? In the study, questionnaires were mailed to public high school teachers in Kaohsiung who were registered to retire in 2003. 378 of the questionnaires were answered and returned, accounting for 30% of the total amount. Among the residences of the subjects, the Daliao, Renwu, Linyuan and Qiaotou townships in Kaohsiung County were categorized as the suburban areas, the Gushan, Zhuoying, Nanzi, Qianzhen, Qijin and Xiaogang districts in Kaohsiung City were the urban areas while the Yanchen, Sanmin, Qianjin, Xinxing and Lingya districts were the downtown areas. The statistic analysis of the returned questionnaires indicated significant connections among the subjects¡¦ ideal residences, their birth places, the places they have lived the longest and the places where they grew up. For subjects now living in downtown and urban areas, their preferable residences were the suburban area and then the downtown area, the countryside, small town and middle-size city in the order of preference. For subjects living in the suburban areas, their ideal residences were, from the most preferred to the least, the suburban area, the countryside, middle-size city, small town and the downtown area. As for the ideal county or city for residence, many of the subjects found the county or city where they are currently living satisfactory and most of these subjects are now living in the suburban areas. In terms of moving tendency, among the subjects who found their current residences ideal, the number of those who would not move was significantly larger than the others, while among the subjects who did not find their residences ideal, those who would not move was only slightly larger than those who would. Generally speaking, among all the subjects in this study, the number of those who would not move was significantly larger than those who would. Apparently, there is a significant connection between the subjects¡¦ opinions about the current residences and their moving tendency. For those subject who wanted to move even if they found their current residences ideal, the reasons could be divided into four aspects: the buildings, the natural environments, human factors and financial factors. The major reasons which stop the subjects from moving in this study were the financial factors, jobs of the families members, schooling of the family members and lack of spouse support. Among all the subjects, 70% thought they had found their ideal residences or believed they would in the future. The subjects¡¦ personal requirements of an ideal residence included employment opportunities, cultural activities, quality of nearby schools and religious beliefs while their environmental requirements were scenic view, interactions with friends, relatives and family members, living space and related facilities. For those subjects who found their current residences in the urban and downtown areas satisfactory, the environmental and personal requirements were almost equally importance while for the rest of the subjects, the environmental requirements were more important than the personal ones. According to the findings of this research, it is suggested that the social care and welfare policies should be accordingly adjusted as the elder population increases while many retired elders will move to apartments or care houses which offer special care instead of living with their children. Secondly, this study also finds that more and more people are moving to the suburban areas, forming a consuming force that might be as equally worthy of attention as that in the urban areas. Thirdly, among the subjects who found ideal residences in the urban areas and middle-size cities, their personal requirements and environmental requirements of an ideal residence are almost equally important. However, among those subjects who preferred suburban areas, the countryside and small towns, the environmental requirements are more important than the personal requirements. Therefore, it is suggested that there should be more natural landscapes for residents in the urban areas while more efforts should be invested in preserving the natural environments in the suburban areas. Fourthly, as the elder population expands, the government should establish more institutions or facilities of medical care, social service, finance and transportation in the suburban areas where more and more retired elder will reside in the future. Fifthly, the government should provide policies which encourage citizens to have financial plans for their life after retirement while the enterprises should provide the employees with well-designed pension policies so that people can be economically carefree and move to their ideal residences if possible after retirement. Finally,the care of elders in each community is a very important issue in Taiwan.

Phosphotriesterase (PTE) is a zinc metalloenzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of organophosphorus compounds. Metal ion roles during binding and catalysis are probed by comparing the kinetic properties of Zn/Zn, Cd/Cd, and Zn/Cd PTE with a variety of phosphate trisesters. The metal in the α-site of the binuclear metal center modulates the pKa values determined from pH-rate profiles. These results suggest that the α-metal is responsible for activating the nucleophilic hydroxide. In an effort to determine the function of the β-metal, the kinetic parameters for diethyl p-chlorophenyl thiophosphate are compared with diethyl p-chlorophenyl phosphate. The thiophosphate substrate is hydrolyzed 20 to 100-times faster than the phosphate substrate for Zn/Zn, Cd/Cd, and Zn/Cd PTE. When Cd2+ occupies the β-site, the inverse thio effect increases which suggests polarization by the β-metal on the phosphoryl oxygen or sulfur bond. The catalytic roles of Asp 233, His 254, and Asp 301 are determined by comparing the kinetic parameters of a series of alanine and asparagine mutations with paraoxon and diethyl p-chlorophenyl phosphate. The increased rate of hydrolysis for diethyl p-chlorophenyl phosphate with the mutants is consistent with the existence of a proton relay system from Asp 301 to His 254 to Asp 233. A detailed mechanism for the hydrolysis of organophosphates by PTE has been proposed. PTE hydrolyzes a number of chiral organophosphorus esters. The pKa of the leaving group phenol is altered for a series of chiral phosphate, phosphonate, and phosphinate esters. The stereoselectivity of wild-type, G60A, and I106G/F132G/H257Y PTE is enhanced as the pKa value of the leaving group phenol increases for phosphate, phosphonate, and phosphinate esters. In addition to improving the stereoselectivity of phosphotriesterase, mutations that affect the size of the active site of PTE are screened to identify a mutant enzyme that preferentially hydrolyzes the opposite isomer of wild-type PTE. The rate constants and stereoselectivity ratios for a number of active site mutants have been determined. H254Y/L303T PTE reverses the stereoselective preference of phosphonate and phosphinate substrates. The PTE stereoselectivity of O-methyl, O-phenyl acetylphenyl phosphate is reversed 970-fold by I106G/F132G/H257Y. A reversal mutant was resolved for phosphate, phosphonate, and phosphinate esters.

<p>Genre is a very important characteristic for movies and generates utility for the audience, therefore, it is very useful for producers and investors to study the correlation between annual genre performance and consumer preference of the audience. How are genre elements reflecting the audience’s taste every year? Does it change over time and does this change have a pattern? With Lancaster’s characteristic consumption theory as an approach, we explored the balance and shifting trends of the popularity of genre elements, thus providing guidance and predictions for the producers and investors for decision making reference. A study based on 15 years of movie performance in box offices and award ceremonies indicates that consumer’s preference on genre elements follow certain patterns and could be predicted. The importance of genre elements deserves more attention from decision makers, and perhaps a special unit on genre studies should be established  economy-wised to much more deeply exploit their value.</p>