Our study aims to investigate whether resilient children share common factors that could explain them not following the expected course of development for said group. The study also sets out to explore which strategies resilient children implement in order to cope with their situation. The study is based on the following questions: How do resilient children describe their experiences from growing up with parents with substance abuse problems? What risk and protective factors do they mention in their biographies? We use the system theory and Goffman's dramaturgic perspective as analytical tools.  The system theory could help us see the family as a system, while Goffman's theory might help us understand how resilient children find different strategies, and why they implement these strategies, to hide their family problems. The results show that the most important factors with a positive effect on resilient children were: to have somebody else important in their lives, to have goals in life, to have a safe haven, to think independently and to develop a high level of independence early in life.

Andelen ungdomar som inte uppfattar några större risker med cannabisbruk har ökat de senaste åren. Ungdomarnas uppfattning av riskerna med cannabisbruk påverkar huruvida de kommer att välja att avstå från eller bruka drogen. Syftet med denna uppsats har varit att se vilka risk- och skyddsfaktorer som påverkar ungdomars riskperception avseende cannabisbruk. Frågeställningarna har varit hur föräldrarna, skolan och vännerna påverkar riskperceptionen. Uppsatsen utgår från en subjektiv syn på riskperception som innebär att inte en faktor ensamt kan förklara om ungdomarna har en låg eller hög riskperception. För att analysera resultatet i uppsatsen har risk- och skyddsfaktorer, som har setts minska eller öka sannolikheten för ett cannabisbruk, använts. Det material som ligger till grund för uppsatsens undersökning är Centralförbundet för alkohol och narkotikas drogvaneundersökning från år 2010. Resultatet har tagits fram med hjälp av logistiska regressionsanalyser vilka visar hur starkt olika faktorer relateras till en låg riskperception även när hänsyn tas till andra faktorer. Flera faktorer kopplade till vännerna och föräldrarna har i resultatet visat sig ha ett statistiskt samband med ungdomarnas riskperception avseende cannabisbruk. Samtidigt fanns inget samband mellan skolan och riskperceptionen när föräldrarna och vänner togs med i beaktande. / The proportion of young people who do not perceive any major risks with cannabis use has increased in recent years. Adolescents' perception of the risks affects whether they will choose to use cannabis or not. The purpose of this essay has been to analyze risk and protective factors that influence young people's risk perception regarding cannabis use. The main questions have been how parents, school and friends affect risk perception. The essay is based on a subjective view of risk perception, which means that not a single factor alone can explain why the adolescent has a low or high risk perception. Risk and protective factors that have been observed to decrease or increase the likelihood of cannabis use have been used to analyze the result. The material that has been used in this essay is a survey conducted by the Centralförbundet för alkohol och narkotika year 2010 among Swedish teenagers. The result has been established by using logistic regression analyzes which shows how strongly different factors are related to a low risk perception even when other factors are taken into account. Several factors linked to friends and parents have proved to have a statistically association with adolescents risk perception regarding cannabis use, this while the school doesn’t.

The purpose of the present study is to assess the potential individual characteristics and environmental protective factors that promote academic resilience among impoverished eighth grade elementary school students in Turkey. The sample consisted of 872 (439 girls, 433 boys) students enrolled in 6 low SES inner-city public elementary schools in Ankara. Five instruments, Demographic Data Form, Resilience and Youth Development Module (RYDM), Scholastic Competence Scale (SCS), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), and Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale (N-SLCS) were used in the present study. Grade point averages (6th, 7th and 8th grades) of students were used as the measure of Academic Achievement. Exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used to analyze the data. The results of the present study revealed that home high expectations, school caring relationships and high expectations, along with the peer caring relationships were the prominent external protective factors that predicted academic resilience for the adolescents in poverty. Considering the internal protective factors, having positive self-perceptions about one&rsquo / s academic abilities, high educational aspirations, having empathic understanding, internal locus of control and being hopeful for the future were positively linked with the academic resilience of adolescents in poverty. Conversely, the external factors of home caring relationships, community caring relationships and high expectations, and peer high expectations, and internal factor of problem solving ability were negatively linked with academic resilience. These factors seem to be vulnerability factors for impoverished Turkish adolescents although they are generally accepted as the protective ones.

International prevalence of ever asthma and current wheeze in adults were examined in 55 countries participating in the World Health Survey. The prevalence of ever asthma ranged from 1.1-7.9% in Asia, 2.4-7.6% in Africa, 3.4-7.9% in Middle East, 2.4-12.1% in America, 3.9-6.8% in Eastern Europe, 4.2-17.1% in Western Europe, and 18.5% in Australia. Anxiety and ever depression were strong and consistent risk factors for ever asthma (Odds ratios (ORs) ranged from 0.64-4.08 and 1.42-18.49, respectively) and current wheeze (ORs ranged from 1.57-3.56 and from 1.72-16.23, respectively). Female and older age appeared to be risk factors, while higher education appeared to be a protective factor for both outcomes. In conclusion, large variations in ever asthma and current wheeze prevalence were observed both within and among geographic regions, with the highest prevalence generally found in Western Europe, Brazil, and Australia, and the lowest prevalence found in Asia and Africa. / Epidemiology

Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents, with ten to fifteen percent of young children experiencing internalising problems (Briggs-Gowan, Carter, Irwin, Wachtel, & Cicchetti, 2004; Egger & Angold, 2006). Researchers have indicated that clinically significant anxiety can exist in preschool aged children and can be sub-typed into patterns similar to that of older children. This early identification of anxiety has lead researchers to recommend that prevention efforts occur early in the life course (Beinvenu & Ginsburg, 2007), before the onset of disorder(s). Research remains scarce as to when the ultimate time to intervene would be, as anxiety research with young children is minimal. The studies presented in this thesis attempt to expand the current literature within in the area of early childhood anxiety. The first objective of this thesis was to extend the literature in the field of early childhood anxiety by examining the aetiology of anxiety and behavioural inhibition (BI) through the investigation of potential risk factors. This study (Study One) represents one of the first investigations within the research to examine risk factors for early childhood anxiety. Two hundred and thirty-six children aged four to six years participated in this study. Parents of the children completed self-report questionnaires at one time point. Results revealed that BI did not significantly predict anxiety, nor did any of the risk factors significantly predict BI. Significant predictors of anxiety included mother’s negative affect and mother’s parenting stress. Father’s parenting stress was found to play a mediating role between mother’s parenting stress and child anxiety. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of both parents (directly or through mediation) in the aetiology of early childhood anxiety. The findings of Study One provide important information regarding the aetiology of early childhood anxiety and provide important implications for the development of preventative intervention programs. Study Two sought to examine the efficacy of a preventative intervention program (Fun FRIENDS; Barrett, 2007a) for preschool aged children, delivered as a school- based, universal intervention. This was the first study conducted evaluating the Fun FRIENDS program and was one of only a few prevention trials cited within the literature examining early childhood anxiety. The study involved a cohort of 263 children enrolled in one of 16 preschool classes. Children were aged between four and six years. Schools were randomly allocated to either an intervention group (IG) or a waitlist control group (WLG). Parents of the children and teachers completed self-report questionnaires at preintervention, postintervention, and at 12-month follow-up (parents in the IG only). Parent report data revealed no significant differences between intervention conditions on anxiety at postintervention, although participants in the IG experienced larger reductions in anxiety than participants in the WLG. Children in both conditions decreased in BI symptoms at postintervention, except for boys in the IG. Significant increases in social-emotional strength were found for girls in both conditions, but not for boys. When examining the IG only over the long-term (pre, post, 12 month follow-up), nearly significant decreases in anxiety were found at postintervention and significant decreases were found again at 12-month follow-up. Improvements in BI were found at all time points for girls but not for boys and improvements on social-emotional strength were found from preintervention to 12-month follow-up, with girls scoring significantly higher than boys. For teacher report, children in the IG improved significantly more on BI compared to the WLG at postintervention indicating that the intervention program may have had a positive impact on these children in learning strategies to manage BI symptoms. However, at pr-intervention, scores on BI were significantly different between the IG and the WLG. Similar to parent report, girls in the IG experienced the largest decrease in BI symptoms at postintervention. On social-emotional strength, children in the IG improved significantly more than children in the WLG at postintervention with girls in the IG experiencing the largest improvement from pre to postintervention. Overall, these findings suggest that the intervention program had a positive impact on some children as evidenced by improvements in anxiety, BI, and social-emotional strength at postintervention and at 12-month follow-up. Parent report indicated that children in the WLG also improved on these measures, making it difficult to contribute positive changes solely to the program. However, teacher report did indicate that children in the IG improved significantly more than children in the WLG. The improvements gained at 12-month follow-up highlight the potential long-term impact of the program although, without a comparison group, it is unknown whether significant differences would exist between both conditions. Implications of these results are discussed along with limitations and directions for future research.

Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents, with ten to fifteen percent of young children experiencing internalising problems (Briggs-Gowan, Carter, Irwin, Wachtel, & Cicchetti, 2004; Egger & Angold, 2006). Researchers have indicated that clinically significant anxiety can exist in preschool aged children and can be sub-typed into patterns similar to that of older children. This early identification of anxiety has lead researchers to recommend that prevention efforts occur early in the life course (Beinvenu & Ginsburg, 2007), before the onset of disorder(s). Research remains scarce as to when the ultimate time to intervene would be, as anxiety research with young children is minimal. The studies presented in this thesis attempt to expand the current literature within in the area of early childhood anxiety. The first objective of this thesis was to extend the literature in the field of early childhood anxiety by examining the aetiology of anxiety and behavioural inhibition (BI) through the investigation of potential risk factors. This study (Study One) represents one of the first investigations within the research to examine risk factors for early childhood anxiety. Two hundred and thirty-six children aged four to six years participated in this study. Parents of the children completed self-report questionnaires at one time point. Results revealed that BI did not significantly predict anxiety, nor did any of the risk factors significantly predict BI. Significant predictors of anxiety included mother’s negative affect and mother’s parenting stress. Father’s parenting stress was found to play a mediating role between mother’s parenting stress and child anxiety. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of both parents (directly or through mediation) in the aetiology of early childhood anxiety. The findings of Study One provide important information regarding the aetiology of early childhood anxiety and provide important implications for the development of preventative intervention programs. Study Two sought to examine the efficacy of a preventative intervention program (Fun FRIENDS; Barrett, 2007a) for preschool aged children, delivered as a school- based, universal intervention. This was the first study conducted evaluating the Fun FRIENDS program and was one of only a few prevention trials cited within the literature examining early childhood anxiety. The study involved a cohort of 263 children enrolled in one of 16 preschool classes. Children were aged between four and six years. Schools were randomly allocated to either an intervention group (IG) or a waitlist control group (WLG). Parents of the children and teachers completed self-report questionnaires at preintervention, postintervention, and at 12-month follow-up (parents in the IG only). Parent report data revealed no significant differences between intervention conditions on anxiety at postintervention, although participants in the IG experienced larger reductions in anxiety than participants in the WLG. Children in both conditions decreased in BI symptoms at postintervention, except for boys in the IG. Significant increases in social-emotional strength were found for girls in both conditions, but not for boys. When examining the IG only over the long-term (pre, post, 12 month follow-up), nearly significant decreases in anxiety were found at postintervention and significant decreases were found again at 12-month follow-up. Improvements in BI were found at all time points for girls but not for boys and improvements on social-emotional strength were found from preintervention to 12-month follow-up, with girls scoring significantly higher than boys. For teacher report, children in the IG improved significantly more on BI compared to the WLG at postintervention indicating that the intervention program may have had a positive impact on these children in learning strategies to manage BI symptoms. However, at pr-intervention, scores on BI were significantly different between the IG and the WLG. Similar to parent report, girls in the IG experienced the largest decrease in BI symptoms at postintervention. On social-emotional strength, children in the IG improved significantly more than children in the WLG at postintervention with girls in the IG experiencing the largest improvement from pre to postintervention. Overall, these findings suggest that the intervention program had a positive impact on some children as evidenced by improvements in anxiety, BI, and social-emotional strength at postintervention and at 12-month follow-up. Parent report indicated that children in the WLG also improved on these measures, making it difficult to contribute positive changes solely to the program. However, teacher report did indicate that children in the IG improved significantly more than children in the WLG. The improvements gained at 12-month follow-up highlight the potential long-term impact of the program although, without a comparison group, it is unknown whether significant differences would exist between both conditions. Implications of these results are discussed along with limitations and directions for future research.

Teen Triple P is a behavioural family intervention for parents of adolescents. It is a multi-level intervention package that allows the strength and format of the intervention to be tailored to the needs of the family. Teen Triple P is available in three modalities: individual; group; and self-directed programs. This research investigated whether a self-directed program, Self-directed Teen Triple P, which consists of a parent workbook and video is sufficient to reduce risk factors known to be associated with the development of serious emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents and enhance protective factors. The present research sought to: a) determine the impact of a self-directed behavioural family intervention program on parents’ perceptions of their adolescent’s behaviour; b) assess the efficacy and consumer acceptance of a self-directed parenting intervention; c) identify clinical implications arising from this research to assist practitioners in the appropriate use of self-directed behavioural family intervention programs; and d) examine the psychometric properties of treatment outcome measures for use with adolescents and their parents. A central tenet of this research is the principal of sufficiency that is, examining the ability of a behavioural family intervention to produce desirable outcomes for adolescents and their parents under lowest intervention and cost conditions. Fifty-one Queensland families with children in Year 7 or 8, aged 11-14 years, were recruited from the community by means of flyers distributed to schools, newspaper and radio advertisements. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: (1) Standard self-directed Teen Triple P, a 10 module workbook program supplemented by a video; (2) Enhanced Self-directed Teen Triple P, the same program as Standard self-directed Teen Triple P, but included 10, 15-minute weekly telephone consultations with a Triple P therapist to assist in tailoring the program to meet the individual family’s needs; or (3) Waitlist control, a comparison group who initially only completed the measures, but later went on to do a replication of the standard intervention. The program was implemented with average recruitment (61%), and moderate attrition rate (23.5%). At post-intervention, using parent report measures of adolescent behaviour and parenting practices, parents in the enhanced condition reported significantly fewer adolescent behaviour problems and less use of dysfunctional parenting strategies than parents in the waitlist condition. Parents in the standard condition reported improvements in some areas but not as large or wide-spread as the enhanced group. Improvements were maintained at 3-month follow-up. There was no significant difference among conditions at post-intervention or follow-up on parents’ self-report measures of depression, anxiety, stress or relationship quality. The psychometric properties of measures of adolescent functioning, parenting style, relationship satisfaction and parental adjustment previously reported on different samples were confirmed. An underlying factor structure for the Parent Problem Checklist was identified and implications for its use discussed. Modifications to the scoring of the Consumer Satisfaction Questionnaire are discussed in the light of its factor structure. This research provides important information regarding the efficacy of a self-directed behavioural family intervention as an early intervention for families of early adolescents experiencing some problematic behaviour. It also provides some clinical implications of using self-directed interventions with families.

The Internet has become an accessible place for teens to seek help, support and information if they are experiencing mental illness. The feeling of being anonymous can be an important reason to why teens are using internet and social media for this purpose. However, it appears through earlier studies that there may be risks involving social media as utilities for these matters. In this study we therefore examine both the risk- and protective factors that impacts on teen’s mental illnesses in relation to their use of social media as a tool for help, support and information, but also how professional social workers can increase their use of social media as a tool in their work with these teens. To be able to do this we conducted a literature review of the current available research in this field. The results presented have been analyzed with the developmental psychopathology perspective and with the theory of digital social capital. The results indicates that there are both negative and positive outcomes with the use of social media as a tool when teens are experiencing mental illness, and that there is a lack of professional social workers in social media even though they are both needed and desired.

Psychological resilience has been described as a multidimensional, context specific concept, and has been defined in numerous ways that attempt to encapsulate the process by which individuals positively adapt following stress or significant adversity. Research within competitive sport has highlighted several components that influence this process, which include; meta-cognitions and challenge appraisals, coping strategies, personal risk and protective factors, and sociocultural influences (Brown et al., 2015; Galli & Vealey, 2008; Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012; Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014a). Significantly, resilience is described as a dynamic process that is developed through exposure to challenge within the competitive environment (Galli & Vealey, 2008); however, little is known about the nature of psychological resilience at a junior level. The understanding of how resilience is conceptualised at this level is important as this knowledge can help to foster the appropriate protective and promotive factors required to thrive in a competitive junior environment, and best equip athletes for future periods of unrest. The aims of the current research program were to investigate the nature of psychological resilience within a junior sport context, and to explore appropriate measures or methodological approaches by which to achieve this. To achieve these, eight research objectives are presented. To address these objectives, five research investigations were proposed: Study 1. This study aimed to explore the psychometric qualities of the original 25-item CD-RISC (Connor & Davidson, 2003) amongst a sample of junior athletes. Three hundred and forty seven athletes (M age=15.42, SD=1.72) completed the original CD-RISC questionnaire. Participants represented a range of individual and team sports. Internal consistency and factor structure were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analyses (EFA). CFAs did not support the original 5-factor or unitary factor structure of the 25-item CD-RISC, but did support a unidimensional shortened 10-item measure (Cambell-Sills & Stein, 2007). Subsequently, an EFA and CFA also supported a valid and reliable 2-factor sport specific version of the CD-RISC, which was favoured based on stronger conceptual and theoretical support. This study supports the contention that resilience is not consistent across all populations and context specific measures may be required e.g., sport specific. The emergent 2-factor measurement model suggests an underlying structure of resilience in sport that represents an individual's control through adversity and growth mindset. Study 2. The aim of this study was to explore the nature of resilience within junior sport, with a specific focus on sport type, gender and age differences, and the association between resilience and sensation seeking characteristics. Participants completed the modified version of the CD-RISC, which emerged in the previous study and the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS; Hoyle at al., 2002), which measures dispositional risk taking behaviours. The results suggested that male and team athletes have significantly higher resilience scores than their female and individual sport counterparts. In general, protective factors associated with resilience positively relate to sensation seeking characteristics. Specifically, feelings relating to ‘control through adversity' more broadly relate to tendencies leading to greater risk exposure. These findings may suggest that those with a greater perception of control take more calculated risks and set goals that are more challenging. This may offer the opportunity to increase personal mastery through developed interpersonal relations, emotional expression, problem solving skills and coping resources. Nevertheless, our understanding of resilience seems limited by the capacity of a psychometric questionnaire to encapsulate such a complex construct. Study 3. This study aimed to provide a review of the literature concerning resilience in athletes, with a specific focus on identifying the differing methodological approaches to examine the nature of the construct in sport. Fourteen research articles that attempted to directly measure psychological resilience with an athlete sample were identified using both quantitative (n=8) and qualitative (n=6) approaches. Quantitative research has increased conceptual understanding of resilience in sport, relating to its positive associations with similar constructs (e.g., mental toughness), and its moderation qualities. This approach permits statistical analyses to track development, however is unlikely to offer sufficient depth to understanding given the complexities surrounding both the construct of psychological resilience and the nature of an elite sporting environment. Qualitative studies have helped to develop theoretical understanding of psychological resilience amongst athletes through adopting phenomenological methodologies, however, the application of knowledge relies on user generalisability alone and does not offer an objective measure of the construct. The review proposes an exploration of novel methodological approaches that consider the positive elements of both qualitative and quantitative research, but does not consolidate their pitfalls. Study 4. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel tool to measure psychological resilience using a Q-method approach. Specifically, this study aimed to construct a Q-set, by identifying the subjective viewpoints of junior rugby league players, associated with how they would respond to stress or adversity and their perceptions of the resilience process. Twenty-nine junior rugby league players (aged 13-14) were recruited to take part in one of two focus groups designed to generate statements relating to responses to adversity. Thirty statements emerged following inductive thematic analysis, and were retained for the Q-set. There are commonalities between these statements and characteristics of theoretical models and previous research concerning psychological resilience in sport. Study 5. The purpose of this study was to use the Q-set developed in the previous study to explore the nature of psychological resilience in the context of junior Rugby League, using a novel Q-sort method. Sixty junior rugby league players (aged 13-14) completed a standard Q-sort protocol, ranking the previously developed 30-item Q-set using a fixed quasi normal distribution, with anchors of +5 (most like me) to -5 (least like me). PQ Method statistical analysis software was used to analyse the data. Principle component analysis with varimax rotation identified four distinct subgroups that explained 72% of the total variance. These groups were distinguished through patterns relating to: social support, emotional control, unpleasant emotions, personal resources, and cognitive strategies. Shared qualities across the four subgroups were also identified, and included low ratings for evasion strategies, and seeking support, whilst generally high ratings for perseverance. The results from this study showed that junior rugby league players display a range of psychological responses when experiencing adversity and four subgroups with both defining and shared characteristics emerged. This study provides preliminary evidence for the potential usefulness of a Q-method approach for understanding the process of resilience in junior sport. Q-methodology provides an alternative to previous research designs attempting to understand the nature of resilience, and offers an engaging activity to participants, encouraging analytical reflections of their experiences. In summary, the data collected within the current research program has presented an original contribution to knowledge concerning the nature of psychological resilience in junior sport. / The thesis has delivered the first study of its kind, by employing Q-methodology to understand psychological resilience, revealing previously untapped complexities associated with the construct. This approach offers future researchers and practitioners the depth of insight and level of objectivity associated with qualitative and quantitative measures respectively, and recommends this as a viable alternative to psychometric measures of resilience.

Magister Artium - MA (Psychology) / Post-apartheid South Africa has been marked by high levels of trauma resulting from exposure to violence. Many South Africans are therefore at risk for developing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Despite a large body of research identifying various protective factors which may influence an individual's response to a traumatic event, a gap in South African research on the relationship between exposure to multiple traumatic experiences, protective factors and the development of PTSD was identified. Therefore, located within the systems theory framework, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between demographic characteristics, types of exposure to trauma and resilience associated with the development of posttraumatic stress (PTS) when there are multiple exposures to trauma. A quantitative, cross-sectional, exploratory study on 158 psychology students at the University of the Western Cape was undertaken. Using a non-random, convenience sampling method, data were collected by means of four self-report questionnaires namely; a biographical questionnaire, the Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5), the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA), and the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5).