HIV infection and disease is a multistage process that involves a variety of cell types as the virus spreads through the body. Initially, dendritic cells (DCs) present at the mucosal site of infection bind and internalise HIV for degradation and presentation to T cells. As the DCs migrate to lymph nodes and mature, part of the internalised virions remains infective inside endosomal compartments. During formation of the immunological synapse between CD4 T cells and DCs, infective virions from dendritic cells are transferred to CD4 T cells leading to a strong infection of those cells allowing rapid virus dissemination throughout the body and establishment of the typical HIV infection. Various membrane receptors are involved in this process. Initial HIV binding to DCs is mediated by C-type lectin receptors such as the mannose receptor or DC-SIGN (DC specific intracellular adhesion molecule 3 grabbing non integrin) which is followed by virus internalisation and lysis albeit virus induced changes in endocytic routing prevents a proportion from degradation. Productive infection of DCs has also been observed allowing trans infection of CD4 T cells through a different mechanism. HIV infection of CD4 T cells, DCs and other cells is a multistep process initiated by binding of HIV envelope gp120 to the CD4 receptor, a 55 kDa transmembrane glycoprotein. Subsequent conformational changes in gp120 allow binding to a chemokine receptor, either CCR5 or CXCR4, followed by membrane fusion and infection. The aim of this thesis was to investigate protein associations with the HIV receptors DC-SIGN and CD4 in order to elucidate the mechanism of complex formation, virus entry and/or defining target sites for antiretroviral drugs. This thesis used a proteomic approach for studying the receptors with mass spectrometry-based protein identification as its core technology. A range of different approaches were developed and compared for identification of protein interactions and characterisation of the identified protein associations. An affinity purification of the CD4 receptor complex from lymphoid cells was used as the basis for detecting novel CD4-binding proteins. For this approach a strategy based on mass spectrometry identification of CD4 associating proteins using affinity chromatography and affinity-tag mediated purification of tryptic peptides was developed. This method proved successful for the identification of CD4 interacting proteins such as the strongly associated kinase p56lck, however a limited number of non-specifically bound proteins were also identified along the receptor complex. Using one-dimensional SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by in-gel digests and mass spectrometry analysis, a large number of non-specifically binding proteins were identified along the CD4/lck complex. Evaluation of different lysis buffers in several independent experiments demonstrated that there was a large and inconsistent array of proteins that were obviously non-specifically bound to the receptor. No further specific binding partners were detected. These data suggested that protein interactions of CD4 on this cell type are of weak and/or transient nature. It also demonstrated a need for careful interpretation of proteomic data in the light of the propensity of non-specific binding under these conditions. To overcome dissociation of weak protein interactions, a method was developed using chemical cross-linking to preserve weak protein interactions on lymphoid cells. Affinity purification was used to purify CD4 along with cross-linked associated proteins and mass spectrometry analysis identified an interaction with the transferrin receptor CD71 and the tyrosine phosphatase CD45. The CD45-CD4 interaction is well known. The CD4-CD71 interaction was demonstrated to be a result from colocalization of the two molecules during formation of endocytic vesicles. Flow cytometry-based fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements were applied to confirm colocalization. A similar interaction was suspected for CD4 and DC-SIGN on the plasma membrane of DCs as cis infection of DCs has been demonstrated i.e. initial binding to DC-SIGN then to CD4/CCR5 on the same cell. Therefore, protein associations of DC-SIGN were investigated using the developed techniques. Using cross-linking, DC-SIGN was shown to assemble in large complexes on the surface of immature monocyte-derived DCs. Mass spectrometry analysis of the purified complexes identified them as homo-oligomers of DC-SIGN. The absence of CD4 suggested that the fraction interacting with CD4 at any one time must be small. The complexes of DC-SIGN were further characterised to be tetramers and successfully co-immunoprecipitated with HIV gp120 and mannan. DC-SIGN monomers were not evident demonstrating that the assembly of DC-SIGN into tetramers is required for high affinity binding of its natural and viral ligands. Thus potential antiviral agents aimed at blocking the early stage of HIV binding to DCs must simulate tetramers in order to neutralise the virus efficiently. Overall the thesis provides new information on protein interactions of CD4 and DC-SIGN, a careful investigation of "proteomics" techniques for identifying the proteins in affinity-purified samples and demonstrates the need for multifaceted analytical approaches to probe complex cellular systems.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection is one of epidemic disease in children commonly in Taiwan. The clinical manifestation of EV71 infection may include acute respiratory disease, hand foot and mouth disease, herpangina, myocarditis, aseptic meningitis, acute flaccid paralysis, brainstem or cerebellar encephalitis. EV71 infection usually occurs through the fecal¡Voral route, leading to viremia and invasion of the skin and mucosa. Infection is initiated by attachment to putative receptor, which induces conformational changes in the virus that facilitate translocation of the viral RNA into the cytoplasm. Some cell surface molecules have been primarily identified for enterovirus which like poliovirus receptor (CD155), coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor, Decay accelerating factor (CD55) belong Echoviruses but no EV71 receptor has yet been found. Rhabdomyosarcoma cells were used as a model for EV71 infection. We use two-dimensional gel electrophoresis to analyse membrane fraction from rhabdomyosarcoma cells infected with EV71 at 6 h post infection. Twenty-eight differentially expressed protein spots were identified. Some lipid-associated protein slightly change after EV71 infection that may indicate EV71 infection will change membrane structure of rhabdomyosarcoma cells. And some O-linked glycosylation proteins were also upregulated after EV71 infection. It is interesting to reveal the role of these proteins in early EV71 infection and cell response.

HIV infection and disease is a multistage process that involves a variety of cell types as the virus spreads through the body. Initially, dendritic cells (DCs) present at the mucosal site of infection bind and internalise HIV for degradation and presentation to T cells. As the DCs migrate to lymph nodes and mature, part of the internalised virions remains infective inside endosomal compartments. During formation of the immunological synapse between CD4 T cells and DCs, infective virions from dendritic cells are transferred to CD4 T cells leading to a strong infection of those cells allowing rapid virus dissemination throughout the body and establishment of the typical HIV infection. Various membrane receptors are involved in this process. Initial HIV binding to DCs is mediated by C-type lectin receptors such as the mannose receptor or DC-SIGN (DC specific intracellular adhesion molecule 3 grabbing non integrin) which is followed by virus internalisation and lysis albeit virus induced changes in endocytic routing prevents a proportion from degradation. Productive infection of DCs has also been observed allowing trans infection of CD4 T cells through a different mechanism. HIV infection of CD4 T cells, DCs and other cells is a multistep process initiated by binding of HIV envelope gp120 to the CD4 receptor, a 55 kDa transmembrane glycoprotein. Subsequent conformational changes in gp120 allow binding to a chemokine receptor, either CCR5 or CXCR4, followed by membrane fusion and infection. The aim of this thesis was to investigate protein associations with the HIV receptors DC-SIGN and CD4 in order to elucidate the mechanism of complex formation, virus entry and/or defining target sites for antiretroviral drugs. This thesis used a proteomic approach for studying the receptors with mass spectrometry-based protein identification as its core technology. A range of different approaches were developed and compared for identification of protein interactions and characterisation of the identified protein associations. An affinity purification of the CD4 receptor complex from lymphoid cells was used as the basis for detecting novel CD4-binding proteins. For this approach a strategy based on mass spectrometry identification of CD4 associating proteins using affinity chromatography and affinity-tag mediated purification of tryptic peptides was developed. This method proved successful for the identification of CD4 interacting proteins such as the strongly associated kinase p56lck, however a limited number of non-specifically bound proteins were also identified along the receptor complex. Using one-dimensional SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by in-gel digests and mass spectrometry analysis, a large number of non-specifically binding proteins were identified along the CD4/lck complex. Evaluation of different lysis buffers in several independent experiments demonstrated that there was a large and inconsistent array of proteins that were obviously non-specifically bound to the receptor. No further specific binding partners were detected. These data suggested that protein interactions of CD4 on this cell type are of weak and/or transient nature. It also demonstrated a need for careful interpretation of proteomic data in the light of the propensity of non-specific binding under these conditions. To overcome dissociation of weak protein interactions, a method was developed using chemical cross-linking to preserve weak protein interactions on lymphoid cells. Affinity purification was used to purify CD4 along with cross-linked associated proteins and mass spectrometry analysis identified an interaction with the transferrin receptor CD71 and the tyrosine phosphatase CD45. The CD45-CD4 interaction is well known. The CD4-CD71 interaction was demonstrated to be a result from colocalization of the two molecules during formation of endocytic vesicles. Flow cytometry-based fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements were applied to confirm colocalization. A similar interaction was suspected for CD4 and DC-SIGN on the plasma membrane of DCs as cis infection of DCs has been demonstrated i.e. initial binding to DC-SIGN then to CD4/CCR5 on the same cell. Therefore, protein associations of DC-SIGN were investigated using the developed techniques. Using cross-linking, DC-SIGN was shown to assemble in large complexes on the surface of immature monocyte-derived DCs. Mass spectrometry analysis of the purified complexes identified them as homo-oligomers of DC-SIGN. The absence of CD4 suggested that the fraction interacting with CD4 at any one time must be small. The complexes of DC-SIGN were further characterised to be tetramers and successfully co-immunoprecipitated with HIV gp120 and mannan. DC-SIGN monomers were not evident demonstrating that the assembly of DC-SIGN into tetramers is required for high affinity binding of its natural and viral ligands. Thus potential antiviral agents aimed at blocking the early stage of HIV binding to DCs must simulate tetramers in order to neutralise the virus efficiently. Overall the thesis provides new information on protein interactions of CD4 and DC-SIGN, a careful investigation of "proteomics" techniques for identifying the proteins in affinity-purified samples and demonstrates the need for multifaceted analytical approaches to probe complex cellular systems.

The fungus Stagonospora nodorum is the causal agent of leaf and glume blotch disease on wheat and is an emerging model for the study of the interaction between plants and necrotrophic fungal pathogens. Signal transduction plays a critical role during infection by allowing the pathogen to sense and appropriately respond to environmental changes. The role of signal transduction in the pathogenicity of S. nodorum was analysed by the targeted inactivation of genes encoding a Gá subunit (Gna1) and a mitogen-activated protein kinase (Mak2). Strains carrying the inactivated genes were impaired in virulence and demonstrated a host of phenotypic impairments such as abolished sporulation. Therefore, it was hypothesised that Gna1 and Mak2 regulate downstream effector molecules that are critical for pathogenic development. A 2D gel-based proteomic approach was used to compare the extracellular and intracellular proteomes of the wild-type fungus and signalling mutants for differences in protein abundance. Tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis and patternmatching against the S. nodorum genome sequence led to the identification of 26 genes from 34 differentially abundant protein spots. These genes possess probable roles in protein cycling, plant cell wall degradation, stress response, nucleotide metabolism, proteolysis, quinate and secondary metabolism. A putative short-chain dehydrogenase gene (Sch1) was identified and its expression was shown to be reduced in both signalling mutants. The transcript level of Sch1 increased during the latter period of infection coinciding with pycnidiation. Sch1 was inactivated by targeted gene deletion. Mutants were able to effectively colonise the host but asexual sporulation was dramatically reduced and pycnidial ontogeny was severely disrupted. Furthermore, the sch1 mutants showed alterations in the metabolome. GC-MS analysis identified a metabolite which accumulated in the sch1 mutants. Computational and database analyses indicated that the compound possesses a cyclic carbon backbone. Based on these findings, Sch1 may be a suitable target for fungicides that inhibit asexual sporulation and the accumulated compound may be used to design novel antifungal compounds. 2D SDS-PAGE analysis identified increased abundance of another putative short-chain dehydrogenase (Sch2) and a nitroreductase in the sch1-deleted background. It was also shown that Sch2 was regulated by Gna1.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) remains the number one cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. CAD or atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, results from the interaction of environmental and genetic risks factors and it is postulated that 50% of the susceptibility to CAD is genetic. With knowledge of specific genetic predispositions, people at risk could be screened earlier before the disease onset. I used information from genome wide association studies (GWASs) approach to characterize some of the genetic polymorphisms that increase the risk of CAD in large case-control studies. From the first top hit of the GWASs of CAD, I found that the CAD risk polymorphisms at the 9p21.3 risk locus are associated with increased human aortic smooth muscle cells (HAoSMCs) proliferation and down regulation of the expression of genes in the vicinity of the 9p21.3 risk locus, CDKN2A (p16) and CDKN2B (p15). Extensive bioinformatics scanning of the 58 kb long 9p21.3 risk locus identified two polymorphisms that disrupt the binding of TEA-domain (TEAD) transcription factors that play a role in controlling cell cycle. Over-expression of TEAD3 or TEAD4 in HAoSMCs homozygous for the non-risk allele led to increased expression of p16, while cells homozygous for the risk allele failed to respond. TEAD factors interact with SMAD3 to mediate TGFβ induction of p16 expression. HAoSMCs homozygous for the risk allele failed to induce p16 in response to TGFβ treatment. The disrupted binding of TEAD factors to its sites at the 9p21.3 risk locus is responsible for the impaired TEAD/ TGFβ induction of p16 at the 9p21.3 risk locus. From another hit of GWASs, I characterized a gain-of-function polymorphism (rs12960) in a mitochondrial protease called spastic paraplegia 7 (SPG7). This variant escaped a novel phosphorylation regulated processing which rendered SPG7 constitutively active. HAoSMCs carrying the risk alleles showed increased protease activity and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production (mROS). Increased mROS production led to increased cellular proliferation and mitochondrial fusion. Cellular proliferation and mROS production are potential risk factors for CAD. GWASs discovered variants at PCSK9 that are linked to the risk of CAD. The mechanism on how PCSK9 has a major effect on the incidence of CAD-associated events relative to his effect on LDL-C is not clear. To address this, I measured plasma PCSK9 levels in two large angiographic case-control studies using ELISA. I found that plasma PCSK9 was significantly higher in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) compared to those with CAD only or CAD with a previous (non-acute) MI. The association between plasma PCSK9 levels and AMI was independent of LDL-C. My work suggests that plasma PCSK9 levels could affect AMI by mechanisms independent of LDL-C. My PhD work points to the importance of backing up the GWASs and genetics data with functional studies to understand the mechanism of how these variants and genes increases the risk of CAD.

L’ataxie de Friedreich (AF) est une maladie neurodégénérative à transmission autosomique récessive. Cette pathologie se caractérise par une dégénérescence spinocérébelleuse, une cardiomyopathie hypertrophique qui est la cause majeure du décès des patients, et un risque accru de diabète. La mutation majoritaire causant l’AF est une hyper-expansion de triplet GAA dans le premier intron du gène FXN codant la frataxine, une protéine mitochondriale ubiquitaire codée par le génome nucléaire. Ces hyper-expansions instables conduisent à une inhibition de la transcription du gène FXN et donc à une baisse d’expression de la frataxine. Aucun traitement curatif n’est disponible à l’heure actuelle pour cette maladie. Seule une meilleure compréhension de la physiopathologie de l’AF permettra d’envisager le développement de stratégies thérapeutiques efficaces. Plusieurs travaux montrent que la frataxine intervient dans la biosynthèse des centres Fe-S, mais son rôle exact dans cette voie, et sa possible contribution dans d’autres processus biochimiques, doivent encore être élucidés. Par une approche de protéomique quantitative utilisée pour la première fois sur des lignées lymphocytaires issues d’un patient AF et d’un individu non atteint, nous avons pu établir le profil d’expression des protéines associées à un déficit en frataxine. Ces nouvelles données confirment les processus altérés décrits pour l’AF, et ont permis la mise en exergue de nouveaux mécanismes mitochondriaux impactés, comme l’altération de la voie d’importation via CHCHD4. La mitochondrie interagissant avec le réticulum endoplasmique (RE), nous avons analysé et comparé l’impact d’un stress induit par la thapsigargine ciblant le RE sur le profil d’expression des protéines des lymphocytes B AF et contrôles. Ces analyses montrent que le déficit en frataxine rend les mitochondries des cellules de patients AF plus sensibles à un stress du RE, nécessitant la mise en place de réponses adaptatives spécifiques. L’approfondissement des mécanismes altérés associés au déficit en frataxine, avec et sans stress exogène, permettront d’une part, de mieux comprendre la pathogenèse de l’AF et d’autre part, de proposer des stratégies thérapeutiques adaptées. / Friedreich’s ataxia (FRDA) represents the most frequent type of autosomal-recessively inherited ataxia associated with a cardiomyopathy, which is the main cause of the death, and a risk of diabetes. FRDA is caused by mutations in the FXN gene, encoding mitochondrial frataxin, arising from an unstable hyperexpansion of GAA triplet repeats in the first intron of the gene. This hyperexpansion leads to FXN gene silencing and a quantitative decreased expression of frataxin. However despite many efforts to overcome any of these abnormalities, there is currently no efficient treatment to cure or even stop the progression of this disease, mostly because many aspects of the pathological consequences of frataxin depletion are still not fully understood. The precise role of frataxin is still under debate. A key function of frataxin in Fe-S cluster biogenesis has now been clearly pointed out, but how its role in this essential cellular pathway correlates with the pathophysiology of FRDA needs to be further investigated. To better understand the biochemical sequelae of frataxin reduction, global protein expression analysis was performed using quantitative proteomic experiments in Friedreich’s ataxia patient-derived B-lymphocytes as compared to controls. We were able to confirm a subset of changes in these cells and importantly, we observed previously unreported signatures of protein expression. Mitochondria are closed to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and we used quantitative proteomic experiments to screen and analyze the impact of ER stress induced with thapsigargin in Friedreich’s ataxia patient-derived B-lymphocytes as compared to controls. We observed that the frataxin deficiency makes cells more sensitive to ER stress and leads to an up-regulation of specific adaptive mechanisms. The identification of a core set of proteins changing in the FRDA pathogenesis, with or without exogenous stress, is a useful tool in trying to decipher the function(s) of frataxin in order to clarify the metabolic disease process and find future targets for novel therapeutic strategies.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico

Yes / Hair fibres are extraordinary materials, not least because they are exquisitely formed by each of the 5 million or so hair follicles on our bodies and have functions that cross from physiology to psychology, but also because they have well known resistance to degradation as seen in hair surviving from archaeological and historical samples [1]. Hair fibres on the head grow at around 1cm each month, together totalling approximately 12km of growth per person per year. Each fibre is incredibly strong for its small diameter; with one fibre typically holding 100g and together a well-formed ponytail [allegedly] has the collective strength to support the weight of a small elephant! Hair – and from here I mean scalp hair – is under constant scrutiny by each of us; whether it be style, split ends, the first few grey hairs or the collection of hairs in the shower that should be firmly attached - leading to the fear that is hair loss.

Pericentriolar satellites (PS) are electron dense granules surrounding the centrosome, the major microtubule-organizing centre in eukaryotic cells. In cycling cells the centrosome promotes spindle assembly and the faithful execution of mitosis. In non-cycling cells it is involved in forming the cilium, a plasma membrane-resident organelle, which mediates crucial signalling pathways in development and tissue homeostasis. PS are thought to contribute to centrosome formation, through the microtubule-dependent transport of centrosome components, and they are involved in ciliogenesis and stress response. Moreover, several proteins that localize to PS are mutated in human ciliopathies and neurodevelopmental disorders. The precise roles of PS in the various molecular pathways and diseases are however poorly understood, in part due to the limited knowledge of their composition. In the first part of my study I performed a comprehensive analysis of the pericentriolar satellite proteome. This was achieved by sucrose sedimentation of PS, combined with affinity purification of a key PS component, PCM1. To eliminate contamination by centrosomes, the PS proteome was determined from wild-type cells as well as from two cell lines genetically engineered to lack centrosomes. Mass spectrometry identified 170 PS components including most of the previously described PS proteins, confirming the validity of the approach. Having determined the proteomic composition of PS from DT40 cells, I then performed validation studies both in chicken and human cell lines. In the second part of my study, I aimed to use the list of PS proteins to uncover new biological roles for pericentriolar satellites. I devised two distinct approaches to gain functional insights. First, I generated a cell line lacking PCM1 as a tool to study the role(s) of PS and PS components. Second, I performed loss-of-function studies on a set of new PS proteins to determine their function(s) in maintaining the canonical PS distribution and in forming primary cilia.

<p>The knowledge of the human genome sequence, as revealed in the HUGO project, has created exciting new possibilities for biomedical research. The Swedish Human Proteome Resource (HPR) program aims to make use of this information to gain further insight into the human proteome. Recombinant proteins are generated from coding sequences identified from the human genome sequence and used to produce specific antibodies to target proteins. Antibodies are subsequently utilized for functional analysis of the corresponding proteins using tissue micro arrays. The aim of my project was to investigate the possibility of distinguishing characteristic distribution patterns of intracellular proteins in the resolution capacity offered by light microscopy. A map of representative distribution patterns was created using immunohistological staining with commercially available antibodies toward well-characterised proteins in the cell. Such a map could then aid in interpreting the results of immunohistological staining of intracellular proteins using antibodies produced within the Human Proteome Resource program. Proteins manifested in nucleus, nuclear membrane and plasma membrane were clearly visible at the expected location. Proteins manifested in different organelles in the cytoplasm however, showed all a similar staining pattern, making determination of exact protein location uncertain. A possible explanation is the resolution of the light microscope not being sufficient to visualize certain proteins specific to organelles in the cytoplasm. Results may also have been influenced by the choice of secondary antibody, where the strenghtened signal generated by an enzyme labelled polymer may have a negative effect on depiction of details in the image generated.</p>