Mitochondrial uncouplers have the capacity of passively shuttling protons from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the mitochondrial matrix, independent of ATP synthase. This results in the disruption of oxidative phosphorylation and increased rate of metabolism as a counter action from the mitochondria. Therefore, small molecule mitochondrial uncouplers have potential for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), neurodegenerative disorders, amongst others. A one-pot method for the synthesis of 1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyrazines from [1,2,5]oxadiazolo[3,4-b]pyrazines is herein disclosed. In the presence of Fe, Yb(OTf)3, and the desired electrophile partner, in situ reduction of the oxadiazole fragment followed by cyclization afforded imidazolopyrazines in moderate to good yields. The selection of different orthoesters as electrophiles also allowed functionalization on the 2-position of the imidazole ring. This new method was used to synthesize 1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyrazines to perform structure-activity relationship studies. Thus, a library of 75 compounds was synthesized and characterized for mitochondrial uncoupling activity. The biological activity of the compounds was demonstrated in oxygen consumption rate assays affording potent mitochondrial uncouplers. The method was further applied to the synthesis of 5-alkoxy-2-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyrazin-6-amines, with over 50 derivatives synthesized. A structure-activity relationship study was performed using a variety of substituents to fine-tune the scaffold's potency. The installation of a methoxy group at the 5-position of the scaffold resulted in the discovery of compound 4.3.20, which exhibited the best activity with an EC50 of 3.6 ± 0.4 μM in rat L6 myoblasts and a half-life of 4.4 h in mice. Compound 4.3.20 displayed potential as an anti-obesity agent in a mouse model with an effective dose of 50 mg kg-1 without changes in food intake or lean mass. Tissue distribution studies revealed predominance in the liver and both white and brown adipose tissue. In addition, 4.3.20 improved serum markers of insulin sensitivity and hyperlipidemia such as insulin, glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, and HOMA-IR. Taken together, compound 4.3.20 and related mitochondrial uncouplers show promise for further development in the treatment of obesity and other diseases. / Doctor of Philosophy / The mitochondria, which is an organelle within our cells, is where all the nutrients ingested in the form of food are metabolized, and either used for energy or stored as fat if they are not used. The latter is the main cause of obesity, carrying with it a myriad other comorbidities, such as high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, certain types of cancer. Obesity has become a great concern with an incidence of 42% in the US. Mitochondrial uncouplers are molecules that target the mitochondria with a mechanism of action of converting some of the energy ingested in the form of nutrients to be lost as heat instead of being stored as fat. The potential result is a regulated form of weight-loss. Herein, we developed a method for the synthesis of a novel mitochondrial uncoupler scaffold and disclose the mitochondrial uncoupler activity of over 150 molecules. In particular, compound 4.3.20 was tested in an obesity mouse model and was shown to induce fat loss with mice fed a high fat diet. Our investigations support potential use of mitochondrial uncouplers as a mechanism for the treatment and prevention of obesity and other metabolic diseases.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a cellular signaling molecule that has been implicated in a variety of diseases including cancer, fibrosis, Alzheimer's, and sickle cell disease. It is formed from the phosphorylation of sphingosine (Sph) by sphingosine kinase (SphK) and SphK exists as two isoforms-"SphK1 and SphK2, which differ with respect to their cellular activity and localization. As the key mediators in the synthesis of S1P, SphKs have attracted attention as viable targets for pharmaceutical inhibition. To validate their potential as therapeutic targets, we aimed to develop potent, selective, and in vivo active inhibitors of SphK. Herein, we describe the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of SphK2 inhibitors. We first describe the development of six SphK2 inhibitors that assess the utility of replacing lipophilic tail groups with heterocyclic rings. These six compounds demonstrate that the lipid binding pocket for SphK2 cannot accommodate compounds with tail groups that are conformationally restricted or positively charged. We then describe the development of aminothiazole-based analogues of an SphK1-selective inhibitor. A library of 37 aryl-substituted aminothiazole tail groups were synthesized, revealing a structure-activity relationship study that examines electronic effects on the aryl-substituted aminothiazoles and the effect of modifying the amino portion of the aminothiazole. These molecules show surprisingly good potency and selectivity for SphK2. In particular, we highlight 3.20dd (SLC4101431), a biphenyl aminothiazole that is the post potent and selective SphK2 inhibitor to date, with an SphK2 Ki of 90 nM and 100-fold selectivity for SphK2. This molecule's in vivo activity will also be discussed. Mitochondrial uncouplers are small molecules that shuttle protons from the inter membrane space to the mitochondrial matrix independent of ATP synthase, which disrupts oxidative phosphorylation and promotes increased nutrient metabolism for homeostasis to be maintained. Consequently, small molecule mitochondrial uncouplers have been pursued as probes for mitochondrial function and as potential therapeutics for the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Herein, we describe the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of small molecule mitochondrial uncouplers. We report a library of 52 compounds that have good mitochondrial uncoupling activity over a wide therapeutic range, including 5.16t (SHC4111522) and 5.17i (SHC4091665), which have EC50 values of 0.63 uM and 1.53 uM, respectively, and achieve at least 2-fold increase in oxygen consumption rates relative to basal levels. With these molecules, we demonstrate that pKa and cLogP significantly contribute to uncoupling activity and must be accounted for when developing new generation small molecule mitochondrial uncouplers. / Ph. D. / Sphingosine kinase 1 and 2 (SphK1 and SphK2) are enzymes that facilitate the production of the biomolecule sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), which plays an essential role in cell growth and survival. However, overproduction of S1P has been linked to a number of diseases including cancer, Alzheimer’s, and sickle cell disease. Therefore, because S1P is involved in these diseases, the amount of available S1P must be controlled. This work describes the design, development, and biological study of over 40 compounds that could be used as potential inhibitors of SphK2 to help control S1P levels and, therefore, hopefully alleviate the effects of disease. In particular, this work describes molecules that probe the SphK2 binding pocket and demonstrates that the molecules cannot be rigid or positively charged when binding to the hydrophobic portion of the SphK2 binding pocket. Additionally, this work describes the most potent and selective reported SphK2 inhibitor to date, 3.20dd (SLC4101431). Mitochondrial uncouplers are compounds that target our body's mitochondria and aim to make ATP production challenging, causing the mitochondria to burn extra energy in the form of glucose and fatty acids to allow normal levels of ATP to be produced. By making the mitochondria burn extra energy, mitochondrial uncouplers have the potential to be treatments for diseases such as obesity and diabetes. This works describes the design, development, and biological study of over 50 mitochondrial uncouplers that are capable of increasing mitochondrial activity over a wide concentration range, including 5.16t (SHC4111522) and 5.17i (SHC4091665), which are very potent and effective uncouplers.