While studying packs of the eastern timber wolf in Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario, DNA profiles at 8 microsatellite loci and the mitochondrial control region were found to be similar to those of the red wolf, C. rufus. Based on this it was suggested that both the red wolf and the eastern timber wolf have a common origin, evolving in North America, with the coyote diverging from them 150,000-300,000 years ago and with neither having any recent connection with the gray wolf that evolved in Eurasia. It was further proposed, that the eastern timber wolf retain its original species designation of C. lycaon instead of the present status of a subspecies of the gray wolf. Four "types" or "races" of wolves have been previously described in Ontario. Using DNA profiles, assignment tests identified four groups, which were typified by animals in Algonquin Provincial Park, Pukaskwa National Park, Frontenac Axis and those north of Lake Superior. The tests indicate that Frontenac animals are hybrids between the western coyote and C. lycaon and represent the eastern coyote. Pukaskwa maintains a small wolf population, which is genetically closer to the gray wolves of the Northwest Territories than the surrounding C. lycaon. These may represent an isolated remnant population of the original "Ontario type" (C. lupus). Animals north of Lake Superior were identified as C. lycaon, but represent products of hybridization between C. lycaon and C. lupus. Currently within Ontario, Algonquin Park contains the largest protected area of the eastern timber wolf. DNA profiles, including Y-linked microsatellite loci were used to establish maternity, paternity and kin relationships for 102 animals from 24 packs over a 12-year period. A complex pack structure was identified. A pack is not composed simply of an unrelated breeding pair and their offspring and subordinates appear to enter pack systems through adoption, pack splitting, dispersal and immigration. Relatively high genetic structuring was found between the Park animals and the "Tweed" wolves to the southeast suggesting introgression of coyote genetic material is not a present concern to the integrity of park animals. Evidence of gene flow with animals to the west, northeast and northwest coupled with the high genetic diversity, suggest that the Park animals are not an island population, but the southern part of a larger metapopulation of C. lycaon. Increased interest in the relationship of the red and eastern wolves led to the investigation of a gene in the major histocompatibility complex. Allelic variation in the exon 2 region of the DLA-DQA1 locus was analysed for gray wolves, red wolves, the eastern timber wolf and the western coyote. Twelve alleles were identified, seven of which were previously characterized in dogs. Non-synonomous nucleotide substitutions was 3.0 times higher than the synonomous changes, indicative of strong positive selection. These data provide baselines for the determination of allele frequencies and their distribution across the geographical range of the four species in North America. The results in this thesis have sparked numerous debates with respect to the protection of the wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park and reintroduction of wolves into Northeastern United States. The data support the idea that the C. lycaon population in Ontario is relatively large, numbering in the thousands rather than the hundreds. Concern for the conservation of wolves in Ontario should be directed at the declining numbers of gray wolves present in Ontario. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Park and resource management agencies are looking for less costly ways to undertake park visitor surveys. The use of the Internet is often suggested as a way to reduce the costs of these surveys. By itself, however, the use of the Internet for park visitor surveys faces a number of methodological challenges that include the potential for coverage error, sampling difficulties and nonresponse error. A potential way of addressing these challenges is the use of a mixed-mode approach that combines the use of the Internet with another survey mode. The procedures for such a mixed-mode approach, however, have not been fully developed and evaluated. This study develops and evaluates a new mixed-mode approach –a face-to-face/web response – for a provincial park camper survey in British Columbia. The five key steps of this approach are: (a) selecting a random sample of occupied campsites; (b) undertaking a short interview with potential respondents; (c) obtaining an email address at the end of the interview; (d) distributing a postcard to potential respondents that contains the website and an individual access code; and (e) undertaking email follow-ups with nonrespondents. In evaluating this new approach, two experiments were conducted during the summer of 2010. The first experiment was conducted at Goldstream Provincial Park campground and was designed to compare a face-to-face/paper response to face-to-face/web response for several sources of survey errors and costs. The second experiment was conducted at 12 provincial park campgrounds throughout British Columbia and was designed to examine the potential for coverage error and the effect of a number of email follow-ups on return rates, nonresponse error and the substantive results. Taken together, these experiments indicate: a low potential for coverage error (i.e., 4% non-use Internet rate); a high email collection rate for follow-ups (i.e., 99% at Goldstream; a combined rate of 88% for 12 campgrounds); similar return rates between a paper mode (60%) and a web (59%) mode; the use of two email follow-ups reduced nonresponse error for a key variable (i.e., geographic location of residence), but not for all variables; low item nonresponse for both mixed-modes (about 1%); very few differences in the substantive results between each follow-up; a 9% cost saving for the web mode. This study suggests that a face-to face/web approach can provide a viable approach for undertaking park visitor surveys if there is high Internet coverage among park visitors. / Graduate / 0366 / 0344 / 0814 / brdyckfam@yahoo.com

Movements of animals presumably reflect their changing needs and the changing availability of necessary resources. In cold climates, snakes often make long seasonal migrations between hibernacula and summer habitats, Finding suitably deep hibernacula with minimal delay could be critical. I hypothesized that such animals should have highly developed navigational ability. By contrast, snakes living in mild climates can hibernate in shallow sites and probably do not migrate; if so, they might be expected to show poorly developed orientation mechanisms!. The objectives of this study were to determine movement patterns and navigational ability of garter snakes (Thamnophis) living in a mild climate and compare them with a congeneric population known to be migratory. From 1986 - 1988 I examined, using mark-recapture, movement behaviour of two populations of garter snakes at Spectacle Lake Provincial Park (SLPP) on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, focusing on several components typically associated with migratory behaviour - distances travelled, population directionality, fidelity to seasonal sites, distinctness of seasonal habitats, and route directness. Thamnophis sirtalis, the common garter snake, is the most widely distributed North American snake species and high latitude populations are migratory. Thamnophis ordinoides, the northwestern garter snake, is restricted to the Pacific northwest and migratory behaviour has never been reported. Both species displayed combinations of traits clearly suggesting nonmigratory behaviour. These included short-distance (< 500 m), random movements, a lack of den fidelity, and variation in the maintenance of specific home ranges between successive years. Home ranges overlapped between individuals, averaged less than 0.3 ha measured over a single active season, and were not clearly distinct from denning areas. Although some directionality of movement was evident, it was likely related to foraging strategy and unlike the typical unidirectional movements undertaken by migrating snakes, Sexual and reproductive differences in any of these traits generally were not significant. The navigational abilities of a migratory population of T. sirtalis from Wood Buffalo National Park (WBNP) in northern Alberta were examined as were those of the nonmigratory populations of snakes from SLPP. Displacement studies were carried out during the active seasons of 1986 - 1988 to determine the level of orientational abilities present in each population and to examine potential orientation cues. Snakes were displaced from their home range and tested in an arena under a variety of conditions, The results demonstrated that T. sirtalis from both SLPP and WBNP possessed advanced navigational abilities. Advanced skills may be absent in T. ordinoides. Thamnophis sirtalis at both study sites demonstrated time-compensated solar orientation as determined by 6 hr phase-delayed tests. Pheromone trails produced by recently copulated females (but not unmated females) also provided an orientation guide for displaced WBNP males, but results from SLPP were less conclusive. Thamnophis ordinoides did not respond in a discernible way to either cue. Navigational skills thus vary relatively little between migrating and nonmigrating populations of the same species but may be poorly developed in completely nonmigratory species. / Graduate

No description available.