M.A. (Clinical Psychology) / The need was identified to explicate the pragmatics of individual psychotherapy. It was felt that pragmatics were "neglected" in the contemporary systemic therapy literature; specifically the work of Bradford Keeney. The explication of the pragmatic and aesthetic, as descriptive notations warrant the discussion of diverse and broad conceptual phenomena. Firstly, a historical backdrop for the shift from purely paradigmatic to espistemological pertinence in psychotherapeutic theorizing is provided. This "contextualization" is followed by a conceptual discussion on epistemological theorizing. The conceptual issues pertaining to the field of family therapy is "deconstructed" and a "re-constructive" exploration is undertaken. Following this "expose" my preferred epistemological stance is posited. The radical constructivist view of Ernst von Glasersfeld and Kenneth Gergen's social constructionist movement are elaborated upon. These proposals are viewed as complementary. A paradigm - systemic pluralism - is delineated. This paradigm utilizes ecosystemic theory as a conceptual umbrella for the integration of ideas from various schools of psychotherapy. It is also argued that this paradigm is "informed" by the posited epistemological stance. In conclusion the implications of the preceeding gamut of conceptualization for the aesthetics and pragmatics of individual psychotherapy is discussed .

In the present investigation, an attempt was made to test the hypothesis that experimentally induced motivation will improve schizophrenic patients' performance of the Bender-Gestalt test. For this purpose, the test was administered individuallly, under standardized conditions, to a group of patients diagnosed as schizophrenic, and to another group of schizophrenic patients to whom verbal reward was also given during their performance of the test. The experimental and control group were similar with respect to age, education, length of hospitalization, geographic area and sub-classification. Between seven and sixty days after admission, each subject was given the Bender-Gestalt test, either under control (no reward) or experimental (verbal reward) conditions. Test performances were scored according to the criteria set down by Pascal and Suttell (1951) and analyzed on the basis of overall score and individual card scores. A definite difference existed between the scores obtained by the control and experimental group. In all cases, the scores made by the subjects in the experimental group were consistently more favourable than those of the control group. To determine whether these differences were due to other factors such as age, education, etc., these factors were compared with obtained test scores. No relationship was established between any of these variables and test scores. Therefore, it was concluded that verbal reward was a significant determinant of the improved performance of the experimental group. The findings of this study also support the theory that schizophrenic disturbances in performance of the Bender-Gestalt test are due to motivational influences rather than distortions in perception. Further suggested is the possibility that faulty motivational systems rather than an irreversible loss of fundamental intellectual ability, is the major source of impaired performance of schizophrenic patients. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

M.A. / Please refer to full text to view abstract

As more women combine the roles of worker, spouse, and parent, there has been increasing interest in identifying factors related to psychological distress in this population. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that psychological distress in multiple role women can be predicted by a combination of role quality variables and individual variables, including variations in family role quality which enhance the management of work role demands (spousal support for work and parenting activities); variations in work role quality which enhance the management of family role demands (workplace flexibility and hours worked per week); and perceptions of control over the demands of both work and family roles (self-efficacy and problem focused coping). Three hundred thirty-one subjects, all of whom were married, employed, and the mother of at least one child under the age of 18, completed a self-report questionnaire consisting of the Spousal Support for Work and Parenting Scale (Greenberger, 1989), the Supervisor Flexibility Scale (Greenberger, 1989), the Self-Efficacy Scale (Sherer, et al., 1982) and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (Endler & Parker, 1990). Correlational analysis, analysis of variance, and hierarchical multiple regressions were performed to determine the relationship of these variables to psychological distress, as measured by the Brief Symptom Inventory (Derogatis, 1975). Alpha level was set at.05. As predicted, both role quality and perceived control variables were found to be significantly related to psychological distress for the participants in this study (p $\le$.05). When considered together, a combination of family income, hours worked, spousal support, and perceived control provided the best-fitting model of predictors of psychological distress. This combination of predictors explained 40% of the variance in psychological distress of the participants in this study. It is concluded that understanding the causes and correlates of psychological distress in this population is more complex than has been assumed and that individual factors and situational factors should be considered together. Implications of these findings for clinical work, future research, and policy are discussed.

Clinical reports about clients in psychotherapy have been greatly under-utilized as research data about the psychotherapy process. In this exploratory study, reports from a training clinic about clients in long-term therapy were studied to address two main topics: the nature and extent of descriptions of change in romantic relationships during therapy, and the documentation of problem reformulation over the course of therapy. Findings indicate that within the wealth of clinical material in such reports, specific documentation of these two main topics can be identified. Most cases did reveal changes or transition points in romantic relationships for the set of ninety-two cases analyzed. In addition, specific ways that clients' presenting problems changed over the course of therapy were detailed for a subset of cases. Gender differences in some areas, as well as overall implications for psychotherapy practice and research were discussed.

Erikson (1963) theorized that favorable psychosocial development would lead to lower levels of negative death attitudes and greater acceptance of mortality. This study examined the relationship between resolution of Stage 7 (Generativity vs. Stagnation) and death attitudes in a sample of community-dwelling older adults (60-94). Structural regression models were used to test the relationship between Generativity and Ego Integrity and their relationship to death attitudes. The effect of Generativity on the expression of death attitudes was mediated by Ego Integrity. These relationships were present using both participant reports of Generativity as well as the reports of participant-recommended informants. These findings provide support for the cumulative nature of Erikson's epigenetic theory in later adulthood. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of practical applications for older adults.

This study assessed impulsivity in football players in the National Football League (NFL) to determine the extent to which impulsiveness predicts athletic success and negative consequences. Twenty-four professional football players from eight NFL teams participated in this study, twelve of whom had been drafted out of college. Players were interviewed and administered several tests of impulsivity including a neuropsychological instrument and two self-report questionnaires. In addition, a collateral (e.g., teammate or friend) provided corroborative information. Data were collected at the end of the season regarding the number of game penalties, games started, and games played. Feedback sessions were conducted via phone or in person with each player, and written feedback of the test results and relevant impressions was mailed to the player in the form of a one-page written summary. This sample of professional football players showed moderate levels of impulsivity. In a planning task, athletes who spent more time planning solved a greater number of problems correctly. However, when they acted impulsively, their behaviors generally served a functional purpose. Players who sustained a higher number of head injuries were more likely to show higher levels of dysfunctional impulsivity and use a more impulsive problem solving approach. Length of participation in football was not related to levels of impulsivity in this group of NFL football players. Players' scores of functional impulsivity related to their athletic success; players who reported that they like to make split-second decisions and take advantage of unexpected opportunities were also more likely to be rated positively by a professional scout, play and start in games, and survive in the NFL. In addition, a combination of measures including a self-report questionnaire, the investigator's clinical rating based on players' responses during the interviews, a behavioral measure, and corroborative information significantly predicted athletic success. Players who reported higher levels of functional impulsivity were significantly less likely to experience game penalties and legal infractions. The investigator's rating of the players was the most accurate predictor of negative outcomes; athletes who reported more frequent incidents of interpersonal dysfunction, aggression to friends and family, and a need for immediate gratification were more likely to commit legal infractions and game penalties. Factors that contributed to developing impulsive tendencies included being socialized within the violent and aggressive culture of football, functioning within an unpredictable environment, and receiving lesser consequences for deviant behaviors. This study provided initial support for the use of the Impulsivity Checklist as a measure of impulsivity in NFL football players and supported the current finding in the literature that a multidimensional approach should be utilized to measure impulsivity. Lastly, the research findings provided initial evidence that utilizing a more impulsive response style in the appropriate context can be a functional quality.

In recent years, research of borderline personality disorder (BPD) has intensified and a specialized treatment, Dialectical Behavior Therapy, has been developed by Marsha Linehan to treat this disorder. Proponents of the biosocial theory, the foundation for this treatment model, contend that BPD is the result of a series of transactions over time between the individual's biological disposition and his or her “invalidating environment.” This theory is based on clinical experience and has not been studied. The present study provides an in depth examination of the life experiences in the family of origin of individuals with the diagnosis of borderline personality disorder (BPD) and compared their experiences to those of individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) in order to elucidate the patterns of emotional communication in the families of individuals with BPD. Drawing on the biosocial theory of BPD described by Linehan (1993a, 1993b) this study explores the social underpinnings of the development of borderline personality disorder in order to increase awareness of the social factors contributing to its development. Ten women (six diagnosed with BPD and four diagnosed with MDD) were recruited from a private not-for-profit community mental health clinic to participate in the study. Participants were interviewed using the Meta-emotion Interview, a semi-structured interview developed by Katz and Gottman (1986) which explores the philosophy toward emotions in each individual's family of origin during childhood and in the present day. Using the concepts of meta-emotion and meta-emotion philosophy (Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996; Katz, Wilson, & Gottman, 1999) interviews were coded to identify themes to describe experiences in the family of origin of each participant as well as her approach toward emotions in the present day. Experiences of borderline women were compared to those of women with major depressive disorder. Women in both groups described experiences in their family of origin representative of Gottman's description of emotion dismissing families. However, borderline women more commonly described parents who were punitive and physically abusive in response to the expression of emotions. These experiences of borderline women are consistent with what Linehan terms the “invalidating environment.” In contrast to the depressed women, the borderline women appear to perpetuate their experiences in childhood by dismissing their own emotions in adulthood.

Although the current literature documents the lack of sufficient utilization of mental health services by older adults, there has been a lack of clarity regarding which factors are significant utilization predictors. The goal of this study was to examine a wide array of demographic, external, and internal utilization barriers, as well as to explore the new barriers of treatment fearfulness, self-concealment, aging concerns and memory controllability. A sample of community adults (214 females and 129 males) completed a self-report questionnaire on mental health services. The sample ranged in age from 40 to 91 years (M = 58.01, SD = 12.27) and was divided into two cohort groups (Baby Boomers and older adults in the Post-War, WWII and Depression cohorts). Four measures of mental health service utilization were used, including past utilization, future likelihood of utilization and two questions regarding how respondents would respond to depressive symptoms. Multiple logistic and linear regression analyses revealed several variables were unique predictors of utilization even when all other significant individual barriers were controlled for. For the Baby Boomers these variable included: health status, physician visits, knowledge of insurance, depression, therapist responsiveness, self-concealment, and attitudes towards psychotherapy. For the older adult cohort group these variables included: Medicare (having Medicare), the belief in inevitable decline in memory, attitudes towards psychotherapy and knowledge of insurance. Additional variables were significant predictors when tested alone, including gender and the memory controllability subscales for the Baby Boomers, religiosity for the older adult cohort group, and coercion concerns for both cohort groups. Lastly, depressed individuals reported significantly more negative beliefs regarding memory and higher levels of treatment fears than non-depressed individuals. These results suggest that treatment fears and memory controllability are important factors to consider as effecting mental health service utilization. The findings also support the notion that demographic, external, and internal factors have unique impacts on service utilization and vary by cohort group. Research and clinical applications of these findings are discussed in an attempt to help address the needs of the older population in mental health clinical practice, administration and policy.

The purpose of this study was to examine HPA-axis functioning in a non-patient sample of self-injurious adolescents in response to an interpersonal stressor. Salivary cortisol levels were measured two times prior to and five times following an interpersonal stressor as markers of HPA-axis reactivity. Women exclusively show a positive relation between self-injurious behavior and the rate at which they reach peak cortisol levels. Both trauma symptoms and depressive symptoms are shown to moderate the relations between self-injurious behavior and cortisol levels in women. Men show no association between these factors, perhaps indicating different processes behind and reasons for self-injurious behavior. These results have implications for theories of etiology, development, maintenance, and treatment of self-injurious behavior in patient populations and in the general public.