Cancer is a public health burden which continues to cause many deaths and an economic burden worldwide. New and improved ways of thinking about anti-cancer drug design and development are needed now and in future. Recent reports demonstrate the key role played by the tumour microenvironment (TME) in tumour progression and the development of drug resistance. This study investigated the interactions between cancer cells and the stroma within the TME, specifically fibroblasts, mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), cancer stem cells (CSCs) as well as the extracellular matrix (ECM), with the goal to develop an in vitro model that mimics solid tumours in terms of cellular characteristics and drug response. Mesenchymal stem cells were investigated as potential sources of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in solid tumours. The expression of CAFs markers, α-SMA and vimentin, increased significantly in MSCs co-cultured with oesophageal and breast cancer cells indicating conversion of MSCs into cell-like CAFs. WHCO1 (oesophageal) and MDA MB 231 (breast) cancer cells co-cultured with MSCs survived paclitaxel and cisplatin treatments better than cancer cells alone. To assess the prognostic value of CSCs, the expression and malignant behaviour of CSC markers were also examined in clinicopathologically-confirmed oesophageal cancer biopsies and in vitro. Oesophageal cancer biopsies stained strongly for the cancer stem cell markers, CD44 and ALDH1A1, demonstrating the presence of CSCs in these tumours. FACS-isolated side population cells exhibited high levels of cancer stem cell markers, self-renewal markers and drug resistance proteins and were associated with increased drug resistance versus cancer cells. In order to measure how ECM proteins affect oesophageal cancer cell response to chemotherapeutic drugs, 3D cell-derived ECMs was used as a model. The analysis of ECM proteins using qRT-PCR in oesophageal cancer biopsies showed that collagens, fibronectin, and laminins were overexpressed in tumour tissue compared with adjacent normal tissues. The culture of cancer cells on decellularised ECMs reduced the effect of drugs on cancer cells compared to those plated on plastic (control). The reduction of the effects of drugs was associated with significant activation of survival signalling pathways. Knockdown of collagen and fibronectin with siRNA combined with drugs resulted in increased sensitivity of cancer cells to drugs and lower colony formation and cancer cell migration. Lastly, this study utilized multi-cell tumour spheroids (MCTS) from WHCO1 and MDA MB 231 cells co-cultured with WI38 and CT1 fibroblasts to mimic tumour cell-stromal cell interactions as observed within the in vivo tumour microenvironment. The data show that spheroids were more resistant to drugs than monolayer cultures of the same cells. MCTS displayed characteristics similar to in vivo tumours in terms of response to drugs. Associated with these findings were increased levels of CSCs in MCTS compared to monolayer. This study demonstrated that MSCs are a possible source of ‘CAFs' in vivo and can support cancer cell growth. This study also demonstrated the presence of CSCs in tumours and that the targeting of these cells can shrink tumours and prevent potential metastasis and relapse of tumours. This study revealed that ECM proteins play major roles in the response of cancer cells to chemotherapy and suggest that targeting ECM proteins, especially type I collagen and fibronectin, can be an effective therapeutic strategy against chemoresistant tumours. MCTS, as shown in this study, is a valuable tool for the evaluation of the therapeutic effect of drugs. Overall, this study demonstrates the critical role played by the tumour microenvironment in tumour growth and metastasis and provides new insights into cancer treatment.

Black carbon (BC) is a significant component of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution, which has been linked to a series of adverse health effects, in particular premature mortality. Recent scientific research indicates that BC also plays an important role in climate change. Therefore, controlling black carbon emissions provides an opportunity for a double dividend. This study quantifies the national burden of mortality and morbidity attributable to exposure to ambient BC in the United States (US). We use GEOS–Chem, a global 3-D model of atmospheric composition to estimate the 2010 annual average BC levels at 0.5 x 0.667° resolution, and then re-grid to 12-km grid resolution across the continental US. Using PM2.5 mortality risk coefficient drawn from the American Cancer Society cohort study, the numbers of deaths due to BC exposure were estimated for each 12-km grid, and then aggregated to the county, state and national level. Given evidence that BC particles may pose a greater risk on human health than other components of PM2.5, we also conducted sensitivity analysis using BC-specific risk coefficients drawn from recent literature. We estimated approximately 14,000 deaths to result from the 2010 BC levels, and hundreds of thousands of illness cases, ranging from hospitalizations and emergency department visits to minor respiratory symptoms. Sensitivity analysis indicates that the total BC-related mortality could be even significantly larger than the above mortality estimate. Our findings indicate that controlling BC emissions would have substantial benefits for public health in the US.