New railway track is laid to a specified level and alignment. However, with time and trafficking movements occur in the ballast bed and the underlying subgrade, and frequent maintenance is necessary to re-establish the correct geometry. This is currently done by the process of tamping, where extra material is vibrated under the sleeper to raise its level. Unfortunately this is not permanent, and the sleeper eventually reverts to its premaintenance state. Prior to mechanised tamping, track was relevelled by hand shovel packing in which the sleepers were raised and fine aggregate shovelled into the space under the sleeper, giving a permanent lift. A prototype of a mechanised version of this process, called the Stoneblower, has been developed and is currently undergoing field trials. It lifts the sleeper and blows single size stone smaller than the ballast into the void space, creating a two layer granular foundation for each sleeper. In order to get a better understanding of the behaviour of a two layer granular foundation when subjected to repeated loading a laboratory study involving large scale cyclic triaxial testing of single size and two layer ballast has been carried out. This has been complemented by a large scale model study using a 'half sleeper rig' in which ballast beds similar to those produced by stoneblowing have been subjected to repeated loading simulating long term railway trafficking. These tests have been used to carry out a parametric study into stone angularity, stone size and layer geometry to assess their influence on the layered system, with the results being assessed primarily in terms of the resilient modulus and plastic deformation undergone by the material. In the triaxial tests it was found that the layer of smaller material was the major controlling factor for the deformation. However, the layer of larger material tended to act as a restraint, effectively reducing the HID ratio of the specimen. In the model testing, it was found that the smaller material dictated how the load was transmitted to the ballast bed, and this was then responsible for the majority of the settlement.

Methods of predicting the dynamic forces are developed for the cases of vehicles negotiating vertical and lateral track irregularities. The bounds of validity of various models of the track are evaluated, from single degree of freedom, lumped parameter models to the case of a two layered beam on elastic foundation with a moving dynamic load. For the case of the lateral response of a vehicle negotiating a track switch, a finite element model of the track is also developed. The vehicle model developed for-the vertical case contains all the rigid body modes of a four axle vehicle for which primary and secondary suspension can be included with viscous or friction suspension damping. Solution of the vehicle/track interaction problem for these non-linear models is obtained by numerical integration, vehicle and track being connected by the non-linear wheel/rail contact stiffness. The most significant forces are shown to arise from the interaction of the unsprung mass and track resilience, with the vehicle modes also making a significant contribution, particularly in friction damped cases. For the lateral case use is made of an existing model of transient vehicle behaviour containing the wheel/rail contact non-linearities, to which track resilience is added in order to predict the track forces. The model is used to predict the forces which would be anticipated at discrete lateral irregularities such as those to be found at track switches. Once again the interaction with the track introduces modes of vibration which are significant in terms of wheel/rail forces. Comparison is made with experimental results obtained from full scale tests in the field. In one experiment the vertical track forces due to a range of vehicles negotiating a series of dipped welds in the track were measured, and in a second the lateral forces were recorded at the site of an artificially introduced lateral kink. A particular application of the results is in the prediction of the rate of deterioration of vertical and lateral geometry due to dynamic forces. This is to offer an improved understanding of the deterioration mechanism in order to influence the future design of vehicles and track to reduce maintenance costs.

Railway track ballast fouling is an ongoing issue without a clear understanding regarding either the cause for generation or the source of the fouling materials. This study was conducted to determine what physical processes are likely causing ballast fouling, where in the track sub-structure fouling material is concentrating, and what factors affect the severity of ballast fouling. A field investigation on a CN railway track was conducted in Joliette, QC during undercutting maintenance operations. Data for in-situ ballast, sub-ballast, and subgrade samples were gathered from a series of trenches excavated through the track embankment. The geotechnical and mineralogical characteristics of a selected set of ballast samples were gathered through a regime of laboratory testing. Grain size distribution data for the select samples was collected from sieve and hydrometer testing. Three sets of LA abrasion tests were conducted on both in-situ and freshly quarried ballast rock to determine the degradation characteristics of the various ballast types. The petrographic analysis of the sample types was conducted using bulk hand sample characterization, thin-section analysis, and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis. The petrographic, grain size, and LA abrasion combined analysis indicated that ballast fouling was primarily caused through degradation of the ballast. The fouling material within the ballast pores was sourced to the abraded pieces of ballast that had degraded over time through XRD and grain size distribution analysis. It was found with statistical confidence that ballast layers with harder, structureless rock types have less fouling material form within the ballast void spaces compared to ballast rock types that are soft on the Mohs hardness scale or have planes of weakness due to structural factors. Analysis of the grain size data also showed that ballast fouling was generally concentrated within the section of the ballast layer directly underlying the steel rail, within the topmost parts of the ballast layers. Overall it was recommended that the effects of chemical degradation on ballast rock types and the historical operational duration of ballast be incorporated into future ballast fouling studies. / Thesis (Master, Geological Sciences & Geological Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2011-09-27 10:01:46.141

The research presented in this thesis is aimed at developing a limit state design methodology for railway track for recommendation to Standards Australia's next revision of the 'Permanent way materials: prestressed concrete sleepers' code (AS1085.14, 2003). There is widespread suspicion that the railway track, particularly concrete sleepers, have untapped reserves of strength that has potential engineering and economic advantages for track owners. Through quantifying the effects of train speed, wheel impact loadings and distribution of vehicle loads, track engineers would be able to design railway track more accurately and hence uncover the reserves of strengths in railway track. To achieve this improvement a comprehensive set of wheel/rail impact measurements has been collected over a one year period to establish a distribution of track loadings. The wheel/rail impact data collected showed a logarithmically linear distribution which shows that impact forces are randomly occurring events. The linearity of the data also allows for wheel/rail impact forces to be forecasted allowing for a more rational risk based design of the railway track. To help with an investigation of the influence of changes to train operation on the wheel/rail impact force distributions, development of a new dynamic track computer model capable of simulating the complex interaction between the train and track was completed within this research. The model known as DTRACK (Dynamic analysis of rail TRACK) was benchmarked against other dynamic models and field data to validate its outputs. The field measurements and DTRACK simulations became the basis for development of a limit state design methodology for railway track (risk based approach) for railway track in place of an allowable limit state (compliance based) approach. This new approach will allow track owners to assess the track capacity based on more realistic loads and is expected to allow an increase in the capacity of existing track infrastructure which will allow railways to be more commercially competitive and viable.

Railway track stiffness (vertical track load divided by track deflection) is a basic parameter oftrack design which influences the bearing capacity, the dynamic behaviour of passing vehiclesand, in particular, track geometry quality and the life of track components. Track stiffness is abroad topic and in this thesis some aspects are treated comprehensively. In the introductionpart of the thesis, track stiffness and track stiffness measurements are put in their propercontext of track maintenance and condition assessment. The first aspect is measurement of track stiffness. During the course of this project, Banverkethas developed a new device for measurement of dynamic track stiffness called RSMV(Rolling Stiffness Measurement Vehicle). The RSMV is capable of exciting the trackdynamically through two oscillating masses above one wheelset. The dynamic stiffness is acomplex-valued quantity where magnitude is the direct relation between applied load anddeflection (kN/mm) and phase is a measure of deflection-delay by comparison with force. Thephase has partial relationship with damping properties and ground vibration. The RSMVrepeatability is convincing and both overall measurements at higher speeds (up to 50 km/h)and detailed investigations (below 10 km/h) can be performed. The measurement systemdevelopment is described in Paper A and B. The second aspect is evaluation of track stiffness measurements along the track from a trackengineering perspective. Actual values of stiffness as well as variations along the track areimportant, but cannot always answer maintenance and design related questions alone. InPaper D track stiffness is studied in combination with measurements of track geometryquality (longitudinal level) and ground penetrating radar (GPR). The different measurementsare complementary and a more reliable condition assessment is possible by the combinedanalysis. The relation between soft soils and dynamic track stiffness measurements is studiedin Paper C. Soft soils are easily found and quantified by stiffness measurements, in particularif the soft layer is in the upper part of the substructure. There are also possibilities to directlyrelate substructure properties to track stiffness measurements. Environmental vibrations areoften related to soft soils and partly covered in Paper C. One explanation of the excitationmechanism of train induced environmental vibrations is short waved irregular supportconditions. This is described in Paper E, where track stiffness was evinced to have normalvariations of 2 – 10 % between adjacent sleepers and variations up to 30 % were found. Anindicative way of finding irregular support conditions is by means of filtering longitudinallevel, which is also described in the paper. Train-track interaction simulation is used in PaperH to study track stiffness influence on track performance. Various parameters of trackperformance are considered, e.g. rail sectional moment, rail displacement, forces at wheel-railinterface and on sleepers, and vehicle accelerations. Determining optimal track stiffness froman engineering perspective is an important task as it impacts all listed parameters. The third aspect, efficient maintenance, is only partially covered. As track stiffness relates toother condition data when studied from a maintenance perspective, vertical geometricaldefects (longitudinal level and corrugation/roughness) are studied in paper F. The generalmagnitude dependency of wavelength is revealed and ways of handling this in conditionassessment are proposed. Also a methodology for automated analysis of a large set ofcondition data is proposed in Paper G. A case study where dynamic track stiffness,longitudinal level and ground penetrating radar are considered manifests the importance oftrack stiffness measurements, particularly for soil/embankment related issues. / QC 20100623

Rail track operators have traditionally used manual methods to construct train timetables. Creating a timetable can take several weeks, and so the process usually stops once the first feasible timetable has been found. It is suspected that this timetable is often far from optimal. Existing methods schedule track maintenance once the best train timetable has been determined and allow little or no adjustments to the timetable. This approach almost certainly produces suboptimal integrated solutions since the track maintenance schedule is developed with the imposition of the previously constructed train timetable. The research in this thesis considers operationally feasible methods to produce integrated train timetables and track maintenance schedules so that, when evaluated according to key performance criteria, the overall schedule is the best possible. This research was carried out as part of the Cooperative Research Centre for Railway Engineering and Technologies. We developed a method that uses a local search meta-heuristic called 'problem space search'. A fast dispatch heuristic repeatedly selects and moves a track possessor (train or maintenance task) through the network; this results in a single integrated schedule. This technique generates a collection of alternative feasible schedules by applying the dispatch heuristic to different sets of randomly perturbed data. The quality of the schedules is then evaluated. Thousands of feasible solutions can be found within minutes. We also formulated an integer programming model that selects a path for each train and maintenance task from a set of alternatives. If all possible paths are considered, then the best schedule found is guaranteed to be optimal. To reduce the size of the model, we explored a reduction technique called 'branch and price'. The method works on small example problems where paths are selected from a predetermined set, but the computation time and memory requirements mean that the method is not suitable for realistic problems. The main advantages of the problem space search method are generality and speed. We are able to model the operations of a variety of rail networks due to the representation of the problem. The generated schedules can be ranked with a user-defined objective measure. The speed at which we produce a range of feasible integrated schedules allows the method to be used in an operational setting, both to create schedules and to test different scenarios. A comparison with simulated current practice on a range of test data sets reveals improvements in total delay of up to 22%.

Rail track operators have traditionally used manual methods to construct train timetables. Creating a timetable can take several weeks, and so the process usually stops once the first feasible timetable has been found. It is suspected that this timetable is often far from optimal. Existing methods schedule track maintenance once the best train timetable has been determined and allow little or no adjustments to the timetable. This approach almost certainly produces suboptimal integrated solutions since the track maintenance schedule is developed with the imposition of the previously constructed train timetable. The research in this thesis considers operationally feasible methods to produce integrated train timetables and track maintenance schedules so that, when evaluated according to key performance criteria, the overall schedule is the best possible. This research was carried out as part of the Cooperative Research Centre for Railway Engineering and Technologies. We developed a method that uses a local search meta-heuristic called 'problem space search'. A fast dispatch heuristic repeatedly selects and moves a track possessor (train or maintenance task) through the network; this results in a single integrated schedule. This technique generates a collection of alternative feasible schedules by applying the dispatch heuristic to different sets of randomly perturbed data. The quality of the schedules is then evaluated. Thousands of feasible solutions can be found within minutes. We also formulated an integer programming model that selects a path for each train and maintenance task from a set of alternatives. If all possible paths are considered, then the best schedule found is guaranteed to be optimal. To reduce the size of the model, we explored a reduction technique called 'branch and price'. The method works on small example problems where paths are selected from a predetermined set, but the computation time and memory requirements mean that the method is not suitable for realistic problems. The main advantages of the problem space search method are generality and speed. We are able to model the operations of a variety of rail networks due to the representation of the problem. The generated schedules can be ranked with a user-defined objective measure. The speed at which we produce a range of feasible integrated schedules allows the method to be used in an operational setting, both to create schedules and to test different scenarios. A comparison with simulated current practice on a range of test data sets reveals improvements in total delay of up to 22%.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The railway transportation system is fundamental in sustaining the economic activities of a country, by providing a safe, reliable and relatively affordable means of transporting people and goods; hence, the need to ensure its ongoing reliability is of paramount importance. The principle and applications of rail reliability have been reviewed, and reliability improvement in rail infrastructure has been investigated using failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA). Reliability improvement is a continuous process that is geared to meeting dynamic changes in operation and stakeholders’ expectations. Recently, growth has occurred in the amount of rail transport traffic utilisation undertaken, together with the degradation of the infrastructure involved. Such deterioration has amplified the operating risks, leading to an inadequacy in rail track maintenance and inspection that should have kept abreast with the changes. The result has been increased rail failures, and subsequent derailments. A case study of the Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA) Metrorail maintenance policy was reviewed to evaluate its maintenance strategy and identifying the potential critical failure modes, so as to be able to recommend improvement of its reliability, and, thus, its availability. On the basis of the case study of PRASA Metrorail maintenance strategy and its performance, it is recommended that PRASA Metrorail change its maintenance policy through employing a cluster maintenance strategy for each depot. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die spoorwegvervoerstelsel is fundamenteel om die ekonomiese bedrywighede van ’n land te ondersteun deur die voorsiening van ’n veilige, betroubare en betreklik bekostigbare manier om mense en goedere te vervoer. Dus is dit van die allergrootste belang om die voortgesette betroubaarheid daarvan te verseker. Die beginsels en toepassings van spoorbetroubaarheid is hersien en die betroubaarheidsverbetering van spoorinfrastruktuur met behulp van foutmodus-eneffekontleding (“FMEA”) ondersoek. Betroubaarheidsverbetering is ’n voortdurende proses om tred te hou met dinamiese bedryfsveranderinge sowel as verskuiwings in belanghebbendes se verwagtinge. Die hoeveelheid spoorvervoerverkeer het onlangs beduidend toegeneem, terwyl die betrokke infrastruktuur agteruitgegaan het. Dié agteruitgang het die bedryfsrisiko’s verhoog, en lei tot ontoereikende spoorweginstandhouding en -inspeksie, wat veronderstel was om met die veranderinge tred te gehou het. Dit gee aanleiding tot ’n toename in spoorwegfoute en gevolglike ontsporing. ’n Gevallestudie is van die instandhoudingsbeleid van die Passasierspooragentskap van Suid- Afrika (PRASA) Metrorail onderneem om dié organisasie se instandhoudingstrategie te beoordeel en die moontlike kritieke foutmodusse te bepaal. Die doel hiermee was om verbeteringe in stelselbetroubaarheid en dus ook stelselbeskikbaarheid voor te stel. Op grond van die gevallestudie van die PRASA Metrorail-instandhoudingstrategie en -prestasie, word daar aanbeveel dat PRASA Metrorail sy instandhoudingsbeleid verander deur ’n klusterinstandhoudingsplan vir elke depot in werking te stel.

The biodiversity of vascular plants and invertebrates (beetles) was studied on the strips by the railway track during two years in South Bohemia. The phytocenological mapping and pitfall trapping was used for the studying of model groups. The biodiversity of both studied groups was relatively high with different ecological characteristic of its communities. The both hygrophilous and xerophilous species occur in locality. The ubiquitous eurytopic species of beetles prevail in communities, but the rare specific species were found also. The number of specimen of both invasive and rare plant species was low. The railway track play the important role of biocentrum more for invertebrates than plants.

Une forte progression du transport ferroviaire est observée les dernières années dans plusieurs pays. L’augmentation de la capacité du réseau ferroviaire demande à la fois l’évaluation de l’infrastructure existante selon le trafic attendu, la vitesse des trains, la charge à l’essieu, ainsi que la réduction des interventions de maintenance. Une performance accrue de la voie ferrée par rapport à ces critères nécessite l’amélioration des normes de conception et des outils de prédiction qui puissent prendre en compte toute la durée de vie de la structure. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de cette thèse est d’apporter un point de vue géotechnique à la modélisation numérique du comportement des voies ferrées sous charge mobile. Un modèle numérique rationnel est développé dans la thèse, composé de trois aspects principaux:(i) comportement dynamique de la voie ferrée, (ii) analyse probabiliste et (iii) comportement non linéaire des géomatériaux. Cette approche permet d’appréhender le comportement mécanique de la voie ferrée à différents instants de son cycle de vie. La première partie de cette thèse est consacrée au développement d’un modèle numérique en dynamique de la voie ferrée, adapté à l’analyse probabiliste et au comportement non linéaire. Une modélisation par Eléments Finis dans le domaine temporel est choisie pour cadre général. Ainsi, un modèle 2D en déformation plane avec épaisseur est proposé dans cette thèse, l’épaisseur hors plan étant calibrée à partir des calculs 3D en statique. Les avantages et inconvénients de cette méthodologie sont discutés selon la représentativité du champ de contraintes dans le plan et du temps de calcul associé, paramètre important pour l’analyse probabiliste. Une méthodologie pour la mise en charge est discutée et implémentée afin de réduire la génération d’ondes parasites. La réponse dynamique de la voie ferrée et l’influence croisée de la vitesse de la charge et de la rigidité de la plateforme sont évaluées sous hypothèse de comportement élastique linéaire. L’influence de la variabilité des propriétés mécaniques de la voie ferrée dans la mesure de la raideur de voie est discutée dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse. Des variations spatiales du module d’Young des couches ferroviaires sont modélisées par des champs aléatoires invariants scalaires. La densité de probabilité de la loi marginale d’ordre 1 associée au champ est obtenue grâce à une analyse statistique des mesures in situ. L’influence croisée du support discret et de la distance de corrélation des champs d’entrée dans les variations de la raideur de voie est mise en évidence à partir de différentes structures de corrélation. Afin de vérifier l’importance de chaque paramètre d’entrée sur les variations de raideur de voie, une analyse de sensibilité globale est effectuée pour différentes configurations de voie. La raideur de voie est principalement affectée par des variations de rigidité de la plateforme et des semelles. L’importance du comportement non linéaire des géomatériaux est soulignée dans la dernière partie de la thèse. Le modèle de comportement élastoplastique développé à l’Ecole Centrale Paris fournit un cadre approprié pour l’étude du comportement des géomatériaux sous chargement cyclique. Cette approche est bien adaptée au comportement des matériaux pendant leur “conditionnement initial”, ou les premiers cycles de charge, quand les tassements permanents sont plus importants et les matériaux cumulent des déformations plastiques élevées. Les paramètres du modèle sont calibrés pour les différents géomatériaux ferroviaires (ballast, couche intermédiaire, sol de la plateforme) à partir d’essais triaxiaux disponibles dans la littérature. Les résultats obtenus illustrent les mécanismes prépondérants dans cette phase : densification et augmentation de la rigidité des différents matériaux par accumulation des déformations plastiques. [...] / An increasing demand for railway transportation is observed in many countries around the world. Achieving higher network capacity requires the evaluation of the existing structure regarding the required traffic, speed and axle load, as well as the reduction of maintenance interventions. A higher track performance in terms of these metrics can be achieved by enhanced design standards and predictive tools accounting for the whole structure’s life span.Within this context, this thesis aims to provide a global framework for combining geotechnical perspective and numerical modeling for the railway infrastructure. A rational approach for railway track modeling is proposed. It is composed by three main aspects: (i) railway track dynamics, (ii) probabilistic analysis and (iii) geomaterials’ non linear behavior. This approach allows assessing the track behavior during different instants of its life span. The first step of this thesis is the development of a dynamic numerical model of the railway track for both probabilistic and non linear analysis. For this purpose, the Finite Element method in time domain is chosen as general modeling framework. A 2D planestrain model with a modified width is used in this thesis, the out-of-plane width being calibrated from 3D static analysis. The advantages and drawbacks of such methodology are discussed in the light of the representativeness of the in-plane stress field and associated computational cost for probabilistic analysis. A loading methodology for reducing spurious wave generation is also discussed and implemented. With the developed model, the track structural response and the crossed influence of speed and subgrade stiffness are first analyzed under linear elasticity hypothesis.The influence of track properties variability in the track stiffness measurement is discussed in the second part of this thesis. Spatial variations are introduced by considering the rigidity of each track layer as an invariant scalar random field. The first-order marginal probability distributions are calibrated from statistical analysis of in situ measurements. By considering different theoretical correlation structures, the crossed influence of the discrete sleeper support and the input correlation length on the track stiffness field is highlighted. In order to verify the importance of each input parameter in the track stiffness’ variability, a global sensitivity analysis is conducted for different track configurations. It is shown that track stiffness variations are primarily caused by variations of subgrade stiffness and possible variations of rail pad stiffness. Furthermore, the importance of geomaterials’ non linear behavior is discussed in the last part of the thesis. A suitable framework for the description of geomaterials’ behavior under cyclic loading, for a large range of stress paths, is provided by a fully elastoplastic multimechanism model. This approach is well adapted for assessing the track behavior during the so-called “conditioning phase”, or the the first cycles when high track settlements are observed and materials cumulate high plastic strains. The model parameters are calibrated from triaxial test results available in the literature for different track materials (ballast, interlayer, subgrade soil). The model is able to capture the main mechanisms acting during the conditioning phase: densification and increase in stiffness of the different materials by accumulation of plastic strains. The load transfer mechanisms and the stress-strain response of the materials are then analyzed. Different stress-strain paths and plastic strains are observed in the ballast layer according to the position of the control point relative to the sleepers. The load speed influence on track permanent settlement and ballast stress-strain response is also studied. Finally, the influence of both interlayer and subgrade behavior on the track response is assessed via a parametric analysis.