The greatest appreciation is extended to all who contributed valuable time to assist with this project. In particular, Barry Messer, from the Recycling Education Project at Portland State University, who recommended study ideas and provided integral information; Bruce Walker, from the City of Portland, who granted many interviews and was always willing to answer questions; Steve Apotheker, from Resource Recycling, who invited me to use the office library and spent time discussing current recycling issues; Deborah Adams, from Metro, who furnished me with essential data; and Wess Brenner, from the Academic Computing Center, who contributed substantial time to help in the analysis of the data. Additionally, Mara Tableman, from the Mathematical Sciences Department and Dr. Robert Fountain, from the Statistics Consulting Laboratory provided considerable advise about statistical procedures. I also deeply thank my parents, Rob Allerman, Jennifer Wheelan, and other friends and family who supported me throughout the completion of this document. Joel Freedman particularly, provided continual encouragement, unending patience and sound counsel. From the Geography department, I extend my sincere gratitude to Carolyn Perry and my committee, Joseph Porascky, Thomas Harvey and most importantly, my advisor, Dr. Teresa Bulman.

Batteries have found wide use in many household and industrial applications and since the 1990s, they have continued to rapidly shape the economy and social landscape of humans. Lithium ion batteries, a type of rechargeable batteries, have experienced a leap-frog development at technology and market share due to their prominent performance and environmental advantages and therefore, different forecasts have been made on the future trend for the lithium ion batteries in-terms of their use. The steady growth of energy demand for consumer electronics (CE) and electric vehicles (EV) have resulted in the increase of battery consumption and the electric vehicle (EV) market is the most promising market as it will consume a large amount of the lithium ion batteries and research in this area has reached advanced stages. This will consequently be resulting in an increase of metal-containing hazardous waste. Thus, to help prevent environmental and raw materials consumption, the recycling and recovery of the major valuable components of the spent lithium ion batteries appears to be beneficial. In this thesis, it was attempted to recover lithium from a synthetic slag produced using pyrometallurgy processing and later treated using hydrometallurgy. The entire work was done in the laboratory to mimic a base metal smelting slag. The samples used were smelted in a Tamman furnace under inert atmosphere until 1250oC was reached and then maintained at this temperature for two hours. The furnace was then switched off to cool for four hours and the temperature gradient during cooling was from 1250oC to 50oC. Lime was added as one of the sample materials to change the properties of the slag and eventually ease the possibility of selectively leaching lithium from the slag. It was observed after smelting that the slag samples had a colour ranging from dark grey to whitish grey among the samples.The X - ray diffractions done on the slag samples revealed that the main phases identified included fayalite (Fe2SiO4), magnetite (Fe3O4), ferrobustamine (CaFeO6Si2), Kilchoanite (Ca3Si2O7), iron oxide (Fe0.974O) and quartz (SiO2). The addition of lime created new compound in the slag with the calcium replacing the iron. The new phases formed included hedenbergite (Ca0.5Fe1.5Si2O6), ferrobustamine (CaFeO6Si2), Kilchoanite (Ca3Si2O7) while the addition of lithium carbonate created lithium iron (II) silicate (FeLi2O4Si) and dilithium iron silicate (FeLi2O4Si) phases.The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micrographs of the slag consisted mainly of Fe, Si and O while the Ca was minor. Elemental compositions obtained after analysis was used to identify the different phases in all the slag samples. The main phases identified were the same as those identified by the XRD analysis above except no phase with lithium was identified. No lithium was detected by SEM due to the design of the equipment as it uses beryllium planchets which prevent the detection of lithium.Leaching experiments were done on three slag samples (4, 5 and 6) that had lithium carbonate additions. Leaching was done for four hours using water, 1 molar HCl and 1 molar H2SO4 as leaching reagents at room temperature. Mixing was done using a magnetic stirrer. The recoveries obtained after leaching with water gave a lithium recovery of 0.4%. Leaching with HCl gave a recovery of 8.3% while a recovery of 9.4% was obtained after leaching with H2SO4.It can be concluded that the percentage of lithium recovered in this study was very low and therefore it would not be economically feasible. It can also be said that the recovery of lithium from the slag system studied in this work is very difficult because of the low recoveries obtained. It is recommended that test works be done on spent lithium ion batteries so as to get a better understanding of the possibilities of lithium recovery as spent lithium ion batteries contain other compounds unlike the ones investigated in this study.

Urban water recycling has been promoted as one of several ways that water use efficiency could be improved in Australia???s cities, but few such schemes have been introduced. Many urban water-recycling schemes have been proposed, but often, these projects have been rejected because of community opposition. These difficulties suggest that recycling water is not just about having the right answer to any problem, but about the way in which the question is addressed. It is concerned with how practice is institutionalised; not just the rule making, but also the understandings and values that make the rule-making possible. In this thesis, the question of how the system of water governance could be strengthened to encourage sustainable water use through water recycling is examined. An analysis of experiences in three Australian case studies is conducted, in which recycled water was proposed for sustainability, to illuminate the way in which water use is institutionalised. Particular attention is given to the construction of meaning in relation to water use, by considering how water problems are framed and negotiated by different stakeholders and groups and the significance of the multiplicity of interpretive frameworks in use for the institutionalisation of practice. The analysis draws on institutional organisational theory and interpretive methods, which regard interpretation as one element (cognitive) in the stabilisation of social practice and closely linked to organisation (regulative) and values (normative). The study findings suggest meaning was a very important part of institutional change. Participants tended to construct policy issues as they became involved by drawing on different interpretive frameworks embodying different values and expectations. These interpretations reflected the organisational structuring of practice, such that the position/role in the organisational field reflected an actor???s interpretation of problems and/or solutions. Outcomes of the study suggest that institutionalising change in water management is problematic and depends on changes in the regulative, normative and cognitive dimensions of practice, as part of a continuous feedback loop between interpretation and practice. This view of change contrasts with existing research, which tends to see the problem in terms of influencing attitudes of specific groups and assumes preferences precede the action.

Water scarcity and water pollution are ongoing problems that require a rethinking of water use in the community. This calls for cooperation between the expert systems of water supply and sewerage as well as some level of public involvement. It is the interaction between the experts or providers, and the public as users or customers, that is the focus of this study on the experience of recycling water sourced from sewage effluent. This cross-national research explores the drivers behind water reuse; the way water reuse is presented to the public for consideration; the public response to water reuse; the influence of environmental and public health risk concerns; and the function of trust in the acceptance of potable water reuse and the sustainability of non potable reuse. The absence of social science published literature relating to the experience of recycled water guided a grounded theory approach to this research, using a triangulation of methods for data collection and case study analysis. The social-psychological studies of Bruvold (1972-1988), located in water industry literature, were consulted to organise an audit of secondary, survey data obtained through industry contacts and fieldwork. In this way, acceptance of potable and non potable water reuse in the USA, UK and Australia is mapped to provide background data for a set of minor case studies that explore the experience of potable reuse. Residential water reuse experience is investigated through embedded case study research. Primary data were collected at two residential sites in Adelaide and two in Florida. Recycled water is used for garden watering and toilet flushing at New Haven, and is planned for Mawson Lakes in Adelaide. Altamonte Springs and Brevard County in Florida recycle water for garden watering and outdoor uses only. Twenty residents were interviewed at each site involving semi-structured interviews: in-depth, face-to-face interviews in Adelaide and telephone interviews on site in Florida. Individual managers of the recycled water systems were also interviewed and, at New Haven, additional key stakeholders were consulted. Qualitative data analysis, employing a grounded theory approach, discovered the value of Sztompka�s (1999) framework for the �social becoming of trust�. This research illustrates that the positive historical culture of trust at the Florida sites, coupled with robust structural support for residential water reuse that encourages positive provider-customer interactions, develops trust in non potable reuse and uses involving a higher level of contact. In the Adelaide sites, weak structural support induces reliance on informal structure that increases the public health risk, jeopardising the sustainability of residential reuse. In relation to potable reuse experience that centres on the Californian experience, a social dilemma is created through a strategic, marketing approach to public consultation and the lack of public communication on current water sources. Sztompka�s (1999) framework for trust as an ongoing process is expanded to include principles of public participation that will further consolidate trust in water reuse to achieve sustainable outcomes.

In Cameroon, and most other developing countries, the problem of inefficient municipal solid waste management ( MSWM ) is endemic. This is easily identified by persistent heaps of uncollected waste found on street sides or ubiquitous illegal dumps. This thesis examines the sustainability of MSWM in Cameroon using two contrasting city cases of Yaoundé ( 1.5m people ) and Bamenda ( 300 000 people ). As major contributions the thesis generates the much - needed basic original data, critically examines and compares the sustainability of MSWM in both cities ' systems, evaluates the environmental impacts and uses these findings to suggest valuable research, policy and strategic - planning recommendations needed to make both systems, and others in similar situations, sustainable. To achieve these goals multiple triangulated methods were used. In Bamenda, where reliable basic data are non - existent, solid waste from sampled households was collected and analysed for generation rates, quantities and characteristics. In both cities questionnaire were administered to sampled household units selected from four stratified quarters. The survey questions addressed waste management issues and sustainability indicators that were needed to study, compare and evaluate the systems within the wider concept of the waste management hierarchy. The statistical programme for social sciences ( SPSS ) computer software was used to analyse the survey results. Field observations, interviews and a review of secondary sources complemented the data. New findings show that Bamenda city generates 120 - 160 tonnes of municipal solid waste daily ( 0.40-0.54 kg per capita ), 76 % of which is biodegradable and 24 % non - biodegradable. About 90 % of all solid waste comes from households. Bamenda Urban Council ( BUC ) regularly covers only 1 / 20th of the city area and collects and transports 20 - 30 tonnes of waste from its skips, accounting for only 17 - 25 % of the total daily waste generation. The waste is disposed of at an uncontrolled dump on the Mezam River flood plain. The citizens illegally dump the rest. Skips are crucial to the system but their total capacity and access are grossly inadequate ( 37m ³ over 28 sites ), with a further 465m ³ needed. Citizens move an average of 105 m to waste disposal sites. This suggests a sustainable inter - skip distance of 210 m for Bamenda city, far from the present 700 m. Yaoundé ' s daily per capita MSW generation rate is estimated at 0.79 kgs or 1200 tonnes for the entire city, three - quarters of which is biodegradable. Only one - third of the city area is regularly served with about 40 - 50 % ( ~ 540 tonnes ) of the waste collected and disposed of at the sanitary landfill on the Nfoulou River valley. Total available skip capacity is 1440m ³ with 3048m ³ lacking. The primary waste disposal average distance is 87 m. Yaoundé and Bamenda cities are unique in physical conditions and status but neither is able to deal adequately with the increasing waste generation rates, quantities and varieties that are driven by rapid urban population growth, spatial expansion and improved affluence and consumption among selected groups. Yaoundé ' s management has an edge over Bamenda ' s in terms of performance rates but leaves behind five times more uncollected and illegally dumped waste than Bamenda. Though Yaoundé ' s system is private and Bamenda ' s is public, both systems apply the same conventional approach that concentrates on imported technologies while neglecting waste prevention, recycling, safe disposal, involvement and integration of citizens and other stakeholders. This limited and monopolistic approach makes the system unworkable and equally creates huge environmental and health - related problems present at all the stages of the waste management cycle. Government devolves the waste function to urban councils but centralises funds and power. Its waste policies are limited, fragmented and confusing. The garbage tax law yields only 5 % in Bamenda and 7 % in Yaoundé, making both cities rely heavily on extra financial support from Cameroon and abroad. In all, neither city in the study demonstrates sustainability in any aspects of its MSWM system. The existing systems are not sustainable. A new system based on an integrated sustainable model operated within the context of good urban governance is proposed. This model accommodates the uniqueness of cities and is recommended for other cities in the country, Africa and the developing world. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Social Sciences, 2004.

Water recycling schemes are increasingly being implemented across Australia as an effective means of converting wastewater into a valuable resource. There is currently a lack of specific guidelines for the monitoring of groundwater resources associated with these schemes. This is despite it being widely acknowledged that a monitoring system is a fundamental component of a scheme, due to the risk of altering the hydrogeological processes and resource devaluation. The aim of this research was to address this information gap, by developing guidelines that provide a platform for the continuous improvement in groundwater monitoring systems for recycling schemes. To achieve the stated aim, an action research strategy formed the methodological approach for the implementation of the objectives. Existing guidelines for monitoring systems were reviewed, consolidated and refined, in consultation with industry expertise. The developed guidelines were then verified through the implementation of a case study at the Hawkesbury Water Recycling Scheme (HWRS), with the resulting information providing for a preliminary characterisation of the resources. Designed on current best practice, and to meet statutory requirements, the guidelines addressed the identified information gap. The research recommends the integration of groundwater monitoring systems into the environmental management system for recycling schemes, to provide for continuous refinement through the interpretation of the knowledge base developed in previous cycles. Adoption of this practice will initiate improved decision making and management processes, and provide for future resource protection and enhancement. / Master of Science (Hons)

Water recycling schemes are increasingly being implemented across Australia as an effective means of converting wastewater into a valuable resource. There is currently a lack of specific guidelines for the monitoring of groundwater resources associated with these schemes. This is despite it being widely acknowledged that a monitoring system is a fundamental component of a scheme, due to the risk of altering the hydrogeological processes and resource devaluation. The aim of this research was to address this information gap, by developing guidelines that provide a platform for the continuous improvement in groundwater monitoring systems for recycling schemes. To achieve the stated aim, an action research strategy formed the methodological approach for the implementation of the objectives. Existing guidelines for monitoring systems were reviewed, consolidated and refined, in consultation with industry expertise. The developed guidelines were then verified through the implementation of a case study at the Hawkesbury Water Recycling Scheme (HWRS), with the resulting information providing for a preliminary characterisation of the resources. Designed on current best practice, and to meet statutory requirements, the guidelines addressed the identified information gap. The research recommends the integration of groundwater monitoring systems into the environmental management system for recycling schemes, to provide for continuous refinement through the interpretation of the knowledge base developed in previous cycles. Adoption of this practice will initiate improved decision making and management processes, and provide for future resource protection and enhancement. / Master of Science (Hons)

Zugl.: Bayreuth, Universiẗat, Diss., 2007.

<p>Arbetet har bestått i att utföra en informativ webguide över en anläggning i Västerås som tillverkar biogas och biogödsel av matrester. Beställaren heter VafabMiljö. Mina kontaktpersoner, Caroline Eklöv och Åsa Lindén, är skolinformatörer. Guiden ska publiceras på VafabMiljös hemsida för skolklasser på Internet och där fungera som en förlängning av informatörernas arbete i skolorna. Målgruppen är barn i årskurs 3-5. En uttalad förebild fanns: Göteborgsföretaget Gryaabs guide om vattenrening Vart tar bajset vägen? (http://www.gryaab.se/).</p><p> </p><p>Under arbetets gång har design- och funktionsbesluten fattats med stöd av:</p><ul type="square"><li>Intervju med kund och besök på anläggningen</li><li>Omvärldsanalys, mestadels på Internet</li><li>Egna erfarenheter</li><li>Kontinuerliga utprovningar</li><li>Litteratur</li></ul><p> </p><p>Arbetet har utförts i Illustrator och Adobe Flash.</p><p> </p><p>Eftersom det var många delar i processen som skulle illustreras var det nödvändigt att arbeta snabbt. Önskemål från kunden var att låta enkelt, tydligt och roligt gå före korrekt återgivning. Detta har lett till ett manér där jag använt mig mer av symboler än verklighetstrogen avbildning. I rapporten beskrivs intressanta designbeslut där min målsättning varit att låta begriplighet gå före realism.</p>

<p>Sweden is a long-term world reference country in terms of sustainable development. On the other hand, Barcelona has recently made great efforts in order to improve and to make society aware of the importance of environmental issues. Hence, it would be interesting to investigate if these efforts had succeeded in the waste’s management in Barcelona compared to other leading European cities, and particularly to the case of Gävle.</p><p>In this work, the operation of the management of the urban solid wastes of the two cities is explained.</p><p>First, the objectives marked by Agenda 21 of each locality are exposed. Next, a theoretical perspective about management, generation of wastes and types of waste treatment is provided. In the following chapter, the results of the generation of wastes, selective collection and the treatments of the wastes are shown for both the cases of Barcelona and Gävle until the 2006.</p><p>Finally, the two cities are compared and the results obtained in the management of the wastes are discussed.</p><p>The conclusion in this study is that Barcelona has improved noticeable in terms of environmentally safe management of the wastes. This has happened thanks to the efforts of the city council and of the citizens.</p><p>But It is still necessary to make a major effort by the inhabitants of Barcelona.</p>