Idag är marinindustrin helt beroende av fossila bränslen. I detta arbete har en kvalitativ litteraturstudie genomförts i syfte att presentera ett perspektiv på vad som skulle kunna vara realistiskt möjligt idag när det gäller användning av alternativa bränslen för att begränsa växthusgasutsläppen från sjöfartsindustrin. Det finns många olika bränslen som kan användas i antingen en förbränningsmotor eller i bränsleceller. Vätgas har den ultimata lösningen när det gäller hållbarhet på grund av den tekniska enkelheten i utvinningen och förutsägbara utsläpp. På grund av bristen på tekniska lösningar som säkerställer driftstabilitet och tillgång är vätgas inte möjligt att införa i stor industriell skala för närvarande. Metanol verkar ha en mer lovande framtid på kort sikt och sekundärt biobränslen, inklusive förnybar metanol, på lång sikt. Metanol har redan en befintlig infrastruktur och används redan som framdrivningsmedel i vissa fartyg. Just nu kommer nästan all metanol från fossila bränslen. Även om tillgången på metanol är fossil, bidrar den ändå till mindre utsläpp i en livscykel än av konventionellt marint bränsle gör. För det andra kan den produceras via en förnybar process som involverar biomassa bland annat. Andra biobränslen som biodiesel har liknande egenskaper som konventionell marin diesel och är förnybar, koldioxidneutral och kan produceras från en rad olika råvaror. Den geografiska spridningen av råvaror kan dock vara en utmaning för den lokala tillgången, men det betyder inte automatiskt att det inte kan distribueras över hela världen. Ett annat problem som är förknippat med biobränslen är tillgången på biomassa. Tillgången till biomassa är begränsad på grund av efterfrågan på mat, därför kommer produktion av icke-ätbara grödor som odlas för det enda syftet att producera biobränsle att behövas för att överkomma en eventuell tillgångsproblematik i framtiden. Mängden bränsle som marinindustrin efterfrågar kan sannolikt inte produceras från ett enda råmaterial i framtiden, så det är troligt att en blandning av olika biobränslen som produceras från olika råvaror kan vara en realistisk möjlighet i framtiden. / Today the marine industry is fully dependent on fossil fuels. In this paper a qualitative literature study has been performed to present a perspective of what could be realistically possible today in terms of usage of alternative fuels to limit the GHG-emissions caused by the marine shipping industry. There are a lot of different fuels than can be applied in either an internal combustion engine or in fuel cells. Hydrogen possesses the ultimate solution in terms of sustainability because of the technical simplicity of extraction and predictable emissions. However, due to the lack of technical solutions that will ensure operational stability and supply, hydrogen is not feasible on a large industrial scale at this time. Methanol seems to have a more promising future in short term and secondly biofuels, including renewable methanol, in the long term. Methanol already has an existing infrastructure and is already being used in ships. However, as of right now almost all methanol is derived from fossil fuels. Even though the supply of methanol is fossil, it still contributes to less emissions than of conventional marine fuel. Secondly it can be produced with a renewable process involving biomass. Other biofuels like biodiesel possess similar properties that of conventional marine diesel and is renewable, carbon neutral and can be produced from a range of different feedstocks. However, the geographic diffusion of feedstocks can be a challenge to local supply, but that does not automatically mean that it can’t be distributed worldwide. Another problem that is associated is with biofuels is the availability of biomass. Biomass availability is limited due to demand of food, hence production of non-edible crops that are grown for the sole purpose of biofuel production will be needed to overcome supply issues in the future. The volume of fuel that the marine industry demands likely can’t be produced from a single feedstock in the future so it’s likely that a blend of different biofuels produced from different feedstocks could be a possibility in the future.

Bio-fuels, being the primary alternative to the fossil fuels, used in the internal combustion engines are subjected to constant development. The development of alternative Ethanol Diesel (ED95) formulations at AVL Motortestcenter AB has demanded a test facility capable of evaluating the combustion quality of these specimens. A test cell capable of evaluating fuels operating on the compression ignition concept was required for this reason. The aim of this thesis is to develop a high pressure fuel delivery system for a single cylinder test cell engine. The literature review conducted offered knowledge on stages involved in the development of the fuel and the operation of high pressure fuel systems for engines operating on the Diesel concept. Knowledge was acquired on phenomenon such as pressure fluctuations and information regarding engine test cells was familiarised. Scania's XPI fuel system being the designated fuel system for the test cell was studied and adaptations required for its implementation in the single cylinder test cell was investigated. Based on the information acquired, recommendations for the set up of the high pressure fuel system for the single cylinder test cell engine are mentioned. / Förnyelsebara biobränslen är det primära alternativet till fossila bränslen för användning i interna förbränningsmotorer och är under ständig utveckling. För den fortsatta utvecklingen av etanoldiesel (ED95) genom provning av nya formuleringar vid AVL Motortestcenter AB krävs ett lämplig testupplägg. Förbränningskvalitetsutvärderingen kräver en avancerad testcell där bränslets förbränningsegenskaper kan utvärderas. Målet med detta arbete var att utveckla ett högtrycksbränslesystem lämpligt för en singelcylindrig forskningsmotor som arbetar enligt kompressionständningsprincipen (dieselprincipen). Litteraturstudien samlade kunskap om bränsleutveckling samt kunskap om dieselmotorers högtrycksbränslesystemen, dess uppbyggnad och utmaningar. Kunskap om fenomen som tryckoscillationer och kavitation i bränslesystem samt förståelse för motorprovcellers uppbyggnad införskaffades. Scanias XPI bränslesystem, som forskningsmotorns högtrycks- bränslesystem ska efterlikna, studerades och adaptioner för att passa till encylinderkörningar i provcell utvärderades. Baserat på informationen ges rekommendationer på hur Scanias XPI system kan implementeras och justeras för att fungera i AVL’s singelcylinderprovcell.

<p>Quenching distance is a fundamental property of hydrocarbon fuel-air mixtures and is a crucial parameter guiding process and equipment design for fire hazard mitigation. Many industrial equipment such as flame arrestors and burners rely on the fundamental principle of flame quenching, i.e., a premixed flame cannot pass through confined spaces below a critical width, given by the Quenching Distance (QD) of the fuel-air mixture. Through the efforts spanning over more than a century, QD is found to depend on various parameters such as temperature, pressure, fuel-air equivalence ratio, and the characteristics of hydrocarbons comprising the fuel. Many investigations on flame quenching behavior have focused on simple fuels such as Hydrogen, Methane, and hydrocarbons upto n-Decane. However, there is a lack of quenching distance data on aviation fuels like Jet-A likely due to the fact that QD property of these fuels is less relevant in practical combustor applications. But in this era of miniaturization, there are several upcoming technologies that will utilize jet fuels or kerosene in confined spaces. For example, a recently proposed Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE) is being considered for jet engine performance enhancement by cooling down the compressor discharge air using fuel prior to injection. The cooled air can be used to improve turbine cooling allowing for improvement of the thermal efficiency of the jet engine. However, a major cause of concern during the PCHE operation is the accidental internal fuel leakage from high pressure fuel microchannels into the surrounding air microchannels. Under the severe operating conditions of a jet engine (T >800K, P >10bar), the leaking fuel upon mixing with air pose ignition and sustained combustion risks. This must be evaluated against the competing phenomenon of flame arrestment, since the channel sizes in PCHEs are very small (in the order of a few hundred micrometers). Thus, it becomes imperative to measure the quenching distance of jet fuels to design the microscale passages, predict and mitigate fire hazards to ensure safe operation.</p><p> </p><p>In the present work, the quenching distance of homogeneous, quiescent Jet-A/air mixtures at 473K, 1atm under various equivalence ratios (lean to rich) have been studied. For this purpose, experiments were setup using the ASTM Standard Method that involves using flanged electrodes to measure the parallel-plate QD of quiescent, pre-vaporized fuel-air mixtures under various conditions. Validation tests were carried out with Methanol/air mixtures at 373K, 1atm for different equivalence ratios. For tests with Jet-A/air mixtures, the QD variation with equivalence ratio follows similar trends as that of n-Decane/air. On further analyzing the QD variation with equivalence ratio, we see that the QD minimizes on fuel rich conditions with increasing molecular weight of the fuel which is consistent with the trend shown in literature. The flame propagation behavior shows considerable differences on the lean and the rich sides.</p><p> </p><p>Moreover, the quenching distance of quiescent Methanol/air and Jet-A/air mixtures have been estimated using three different models taken from literature. Model parameters were calculated using Chemkin Pro simulations of the premixed flames at the similar initial conditions as the experiments. On comparing the experiment data with model predictions, we observe that the models agree well with experiment data for Methanol/air mixtures, whereas they fail to capture the QD variation with equivalence ratio for Jet-A/air mixtures. The disagreement may arise because of the high molecular weight of Jet-A that causes the Lewis number to be non-unity unlike Methanol/air mixtures. Therefore, an empirical power law relation has been developed for estimating the QD of hydrocarbon/air mixtures to the incorporate the Lewis number effect. The model agrees well with Jet-A/air QD data from experiments over the entire equivalence ratios. This will help to further our understanding of the complex fuel combustion and flame quenching for better risk mitigation.</p>

<div>Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (AFR) and air/EGR flow control are essential control problems in today’s advanced spark-ignited (SI) engines to enable effective application of the three-way-catalyst (TWC) and generation of required torque. External exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) can be used in SI engines to help mitigate knock, reduce enrichment and improve efficiency[1 ]. However, the introduction of the EGR system increases the complexity of stoichiometric engine-out lambda and torque management, particularly for high BMEP commercial vehicle applications. This thesis develops advanced frameworks for sensing and control architecture designs to enable robust air handling system management, stoichiometric cylinder air-fuel ratio (AFR) control and three-way-catalyst emission control.</div><div><br></div><div><div>The first work in this thesis derives a physically-based, control-oriented model for turbocharged SI engines utilizing cooled EGR and flexible VVA systems. The model includes the impacts of modulation to any combination of 11 actuators, including the throttle valve, bypass valve, fuel injection rate, waste-gate, high-pressure (HP) EGR, low-pressure (LP) EGR, number of firing cylinders, intake and exhaust valve opening and closing timings. A new cylinder-out gas composition estimation method, based on the inputs’ information of cylinder charge flow, injected fuel amount, residual gas mass and intake gas compositions, is proposed in this model. This method can be implemented in the control-oriented model as a critical input for estimating the exhaust manifold gas compositions. A new flow-based turbine-out pressure modeling strategy is also proposed in this thesis as a necessary input to estimate the LP EGR flow rate. Incorporated with these two sub-models, the control-oriented model is capable to capture the dynamics of pressure, temperature and gas compositions in manifolds and the cylinder. Thirteen physical parameters, including intake, boost and exhaust manifolds’ pressures, temperatures, unburnt and burnt mass fractions as well as the turbocharger speed, are defined as state variables. The outputs such as flow rates and AFR are modeled as functions of selected states and inputs. The control-oriented model is validated with a high fidelity SI engine GT-Power model for different operating conditions. The novelty in this physical modeling work includes the development and incorporation of the cylinder-out gas composition estimation method and the turbine-out pressure model in the control-oriented model.</div></div><div><br></div><div><div>The second part of the work outlines a novel sensor selection and observer design algorithm for linear time-invariant systems with both process and measurement noise based on <i>H</i>2 optimization to optimize the tradeoff between the observer error and the number of required sensors. The optimization problem is relaxed to a sequence of convex optimization problems that minimize the cost function consisting of the <i>H</i>2 norm of the observer error and the weighted <i>l</i>1 norm of the observer gain. An LMI formulation allows for efficient solution via semi-definite programing. The approach is applied here, for the first time, to a turbo-charged spark-ignited (SI) engine using exhaust gas recirculation to determine the optimal sensor sets for real-time intake manifold burnt gas mass fraction estimation. Simulation with the candidate estimator embedded in a high fidelity engine GT-Power model demonstrates that the optimal sensor sets selected using this algorithm have the best <i>H</i>2 estimation performance. Sensor redundancy is also analyzed based on the algorithm results. This algorithm is applicable for any type of modern internal combustion engines to reduce system design time and experimental efforts typically required for selecting optimal sensor sets.</div></div><div><br></div><div><div>The third study develops a model-based sensor selection and controller design framework for robust control of air-fuel-ratio (AFR), air flow and EGR flow for turbocharged stoichiometric engines using low pressure EGR, waste-gate turbo-charging, intake throttling and variable valve timing. Model uncertainties, disturbances, transport delays, sensor and actuator characteristics are considered in this framework. Based on the required control performance and candidate sensor sets, the framework synthesizes an H1 feedback controller and evaluates the viability of the candidate sensor set through analysis of the structured</div><div>singular value μ of the closed-loop system in the frequency domain. The framework can also be used to understand if relaxing the controller performance requirements enables the use of a simpler (less costly) sensor set. The sensor selection and controller co-design approach is applied here, for the first time, to turbo-charged engines using exhaust gas circulation. High fidelity GT-Power simulations are used to validate the approach. The novelty of the work in this part can be summarized as follows: (1) A novel control strategy is proposed for the stoichiometric SI engines using low pressure EGR to simultaneously satisfy both the AFR and air/EGR-path control performance requirements; (2) A parametrical method to simultaneously select the sensors and design the controller is first proposed for the internal combustion engines.</div></div><div><br></div><div><div>In the fourth part of the work, a novel two-loop estimation and control strategy is proposed to reduce the emission of the three-way-catalyst (TWC). In the outer loop, an FOS estimator consisting of a TWC model and an extended Kalman-filter is used to estimate the current TWC fractional oxygen state (FOS) and a robust controller is used to control the TWC FOS by manipulating the desired engine λ. The outer loop estimator and controller are combined with an existing inner loop controller. The inner loop controller controls the engine λ based on the desired λ value and the control inaccuracies are considered and compensated by the outer loop robust controller. This control strategy achieves good emission reduction performance and has advantages over the constant λ control strategy and the conventional two-loop switch-type control strategy.</div></div>

<div> <div> <div> <p>Commercial vehicles in the United States account for a significant fraction of greenhouse gas emissions and NOx emissions. The objectives of this work are reduction in commercial vehicle NOx emissions through enhanced aftertreatment thermal management via diesel engine variable valve actuation and the reduction of commercial vehicle fuel consumption/GHG emissions by enabling more effective class 8 truck platooning. </p> <p><br></p><p>First, a novel diesel engine aftertreatment thermal management strategy is proposed which utilizes a 2-stroke breathing variable value actuation strategy to increase the mass flow rate of exhaust gas. Experiments showed that when allowed to operate with modestly higher engine-out emissions, temperatures comparable to baseline could be achieved with a 1.75x exhaust mass flow rate, which could be beneficial for heating the SCR catalyst in a cold-start scenario. </p> <p><br></p><p>Second, a methodology is presented for characterizing aerodynamic drag coefficients of platooning trucks using experimental track-test data, which allowed for the development of high-fidelity platoon simulations and thereby enabled rapid development of advanced platoon controllers. Single truck and platoon drag coefficients were calculated for late model year Peterbilt 579’s based on experimental data collected during J1321 fuel economy tests for a two-truck platoon at 65 mph with a 55’ truck gap. Results show drag coefficients of 0.53, 0.50, and 0.45 for a single truck, a platoon front truck, and a platoon rear truck, respectively. </p> <p><br></p><p>Finally, a PID-based platoon controller is presented for maximizing fuel savings and gap control on hilly terrain using a dynamically-variable platoon gap. The controller was vetted in simulation and demonstrated on a vehicle in closed-course functionality testing. Simulations show that the controller is capable of 6-9% rear truck fuel savings on a heavily-graded route compared to a production-intent platoon controller, while increasing control over the truck gap to discourage other vehicles from cutting in. </p></div></div></div>

<p>Stringent regulatory requirements and modern diesel engine technologies have engaged automotive manufacturers and researchers in accurately predicting and controlling diesel engine-out emissions. As a result, engine control systems have become more complex and opaquer, increasing the development time and costs. To address this challenge, Model-based control methods are an effective way to deal with the criticality of the system study and controls. And physics-based combustion engine modeling is a key to achieve it. This thesis focuses on development and validation of a physics-based model for both engine and emissions using model-based design tools from MATLAB & Simulink. Engine model equipped with exhaust gas circulation and variable geometry turbine is adopted from the previously done work which was then integrated with the combustion and emission model that predicts the heat release rates and NO_xemission from engine. Combustion model is designed based on the mass fraction burnt from CA10 to CA90 and then NO_xpredicted using the extended Zeldovich mechanism. The engine models are tuned for both steady state and dynamics test points to account for engine operating range from the performance data. Various engine and combustion parameters are estimated using parameter estimation toolbox from MATLAB and Simulink by applying least squared solver to minimize the error between measured and estimated variables. This model is validated against the virtual engine model developed in GT-power for Cummins 6.7L turbo diesel engine. To account the harmonization of the testing cycles to save engine development time globally, a world harmonized stationary cycle (WHSC) is used for the validation. Sub-systems are validated individually as well as in loop with a complete model for WHSC. Engine model validation showed promising accuracy of more than 88.4 percent in average for the desired parameters required for the NO_xprediction. NO_x estimation is accurate for the cycle except warm up and cool down phase. However, NO_xprediction during these phases is limited due to actual NO_xmeasured data for tuning the model for real time NO_xestimation. Results are summarized at the end to compare the trend of NO_xestimation from the developed combustion and emission model to show the accuracy of in-cylinder parameters and required for the NO_x estimation. </p>