The St Francis Bay beach has experienced chronic erosion over the past three decades. This erosion can largely be attributed to the stabilisation of a large coastal dunefield which contributed +/- 80 percent of the sand supply to St Francis Bay. Stabilisation began in 1975 initially using plant cuttings and followed by the development of the Santareme holiday suburb resulting in complete stabilisation by 1985. Effects were felt from the late 1970‟s and since then the beach has retreated at between 0.5 - 3 m.yr-1. Erosion has encroached on beachfront properties since the early 1990‟s, leading to the placement of 3-4 m high unsightly rock revetments along much of the beach. Where properly maintained these structures have proved successful in protecting the properties behind, however exacerbated erosion of areas in front and adjacent to these structures is evident. Currently no dry beach is present at high tide for most of the year, leading to a significant reduction in beach amenity value. Several technical studies to investigate remediation of this beach erosion problem have been conducted since the early 1990‟s. This study includes investigations into the processes and dynamics of the existing environment and evaluation of the effectiveness and impacts of several elements of a hybrid approach to coastal protection and amenity enhancement for St Francis Bay beach. This proposal incorporated: Multi-Purpose Reefs (MPR‟s) offshore, for coastal protection and amenity enhancement in terms of surfing; beach nourishment with sand from the Kromme Estuary and dune rehabilitation with appropriate native sand binding species. Extensive fieldwork and data collection were conducted, this included: a series of bathymetric surveys; diving surveys and a helicopter flight; sediment sampling; beach profiling and deployment of a wave/current meter. Analysis of these data provided a greater understanding of the existing environment and dynamics of St Francis Bay and provided reliable inputs for numerical modelling. Numerical and physical modelling was conducted to assess the existing processes and conduct MPR design testing. In addition calibrated hydrodynamic modelling of the Kromme Estuary was conducted in order to assess the impacts of sand extraction from the large sand banks within the mouth of the Kromme Estuary for use as beach nourishment. Comparison of bathymetric survey data collected by the author in 2005/06 with survey data collected by the South African Navy Hydrographic Office (SANHO) in 1952 suggest a major loss of sand from the bay, with a volume difference of some 8.8 X 106 m3 calculated. Greater losses were measured between 10-15 m water depths, with shallow areas of +/- 5 m water depth, remaining more stable. This can be attributed to the presence of shallow reef and rocky substrate through much of the bay at this depth range. Monthly RTK GPS survey data from September 2006 to September 2007 indicates a total loss of 40 000 m3 over this period with the greatest losses measured along the northern part of the beach. The greatest losses were measured after large long period waves from a southerly to south-easterly direction occurred in conjunction with equinox tides in mid March 2007. Sediment sampling at over 100 locations within the bay indicated a high percentage of reef (26 percent) and fairly consistent grain size in the fine to medium size class throughout much of the beach, bay and large sand bank within the estuary. While the majority of the South African Coast is exposed to the predominant south westerly winds and waves, St Francis Bay‟s orientation means that waves from a south easterly to easterly direction dominate. The results of the detailed numerical modelling of the hydrodynamics agree with previous calculations and modelling results which concluded that strong unidirectional longshore currents occur along the headland due to the oblique angle of wave incidence and the close to parallel angle of wave incidence along the beach leads to weak longshore currents of variable direction. Erosion along St Francis Bay beach is a result of cross-shore erosion due to large waves from a southerly to easterly direction. Detached breakwaters are the most effective form of coastal protection in these environments and MPR‟s offer additional benefits over traditional breakwater structures. Results of empirical calculations and numerical modelling indicate that the MPR‟s will provide effective coastal protection through the processes of wave dissipation, wave rotation, salient formation and alteration of nearshore circulation. Physical modelling results allowed the MPR design to be assessed and refined in terms of surfing amenity enhancement and construction constraints. In addition numerical modelling results indicate that impacts due to the extraction of up to 600 000 m3 of sand from the lower Kromme Estuary result in highly localised velocity reduction, mainly limited to the extraction areas. The calculated rate of sediment influx into the lower Kromme Estuary indicates that limited extraction, in the order of 20 000 – 40 000 m3 per year, should be sustainable in the long term. Sedimentation of the lower estuary over recent years has had negative recreational and ecological impacts, through reduced navigability and water exchange respectively. Therefore both the estuary and beach systems prove to benefit from this approach. Although not investigated in detail as part of this study, evidence from numerous projects worldwide indicates that foredunes help to trap wind-blown sand on the beach and form a buffer to storm erosion, therefore dune rehabilitation with native sand-binding plant species was recommended as the third element of the proposed remediation of St Francis Bay beach.

Environmental philosophy has expanded and diversified greatly since its beginning. Yet applied philosophies, environmental philosophy and environmental ethics have not engaged descriptive ethics in the way that biomedical ethics has. I will suggest that the failure to has meant that environmental philosophy has had limited impact on environmental practices such as restoration ecology. In this thesis I will attempt to reposition philosophy's ethical spotlight upon what I feel to be the most ethically relevant features of the practice of restoration ecology, and to facilitate this, I develop a case-study. A history of the Musqueam Watershed restoration project and its participants' objectives and their operating policies will be given, followed by an ethical analysis of the project. I will argue on several counts that getting restoration right involves more than paying careful attention to the finished product, as philosophers Elliot and Katz have suggested. Getting restoration right involves placing practice within a broad social and political context where process becomes as crucial as outcome. This will require an examination of the way in which interested stakeholders nature, as well as an examination of the democratic structure and mandate of the Musqueam Watershed Committee. I will argue that restoration projects ought to be conducted in a manner that exploits the inherent participatory potential of restoration ecology. Finally, I will argue the inclusion of ecosystems within the human socio-political context, and thus suggest replacement of the Wilderness Paradigm, or the Hyperreal Paradigm with a Garden Paradigm for human relations with nature, in the hope that in this way we will restore ourselves to nature. / Arts, Faculty of / Philosophy, Department of / Graduate

The Rio Gavilan watershed, located in Mexico 's northern Sierra Madre Occidental , has significance in conservation history. Upon visiting the remote, largely un­developed watershed during two hunting trips in the 1930s, renowned conservationist Aldo Leopold thought it was the best picture of land health he had seen. His main indicators of healthy land were slow water runoff rates regulating erosion and historical predator-prey relationships. The visits confirmed Leopold's concept of land health, inspired many of his essays, and helped shape his land ethic. Leopold proposed the area as a control site to research healthy land throughout North America . The proposal never went forward and the area has since been more intensively logged and grazed. This dissertation research used extensive literature review, archives, oral histories, citizen surveys, and rapid assessment of forest, rangeland, riparian, and socioeconomic health to assess impacts of past cultures and update the area's land health status. Projects that could restore land health, such as linked eco-tourism, forest density reduction, and rotational grazing, were assessed for feasibility. Recent critiques of Leopold's land ethic were also reviewed. Results indicate most pre-1940s impacts were light, current land health status is moderate, and local interest exists in restoring land health. Many fish and wildlife populations are reduced, temporarily stabilized, but still at risk. Soil and riverbed erosion, service sector economics, and (at some ridge-top sites) forest density are the land health indicators in worst condition. Land health restoration projects are feasible.

Ecological restoration is quickly becoming a major approach to how humans interact with the natural world. Some view restoration as another land management technique on par with conservation and preservation. Others view it as a way to make reparations for our misdeeds and to reincorporate humans into the natural world. Ideas regarding restoration from key academics and restorationists are evaluated here. Their views have set the stage for the contemporary paradigm. Values that may be attributed to restoration and received from it are evaluated. I discuss my own reservations regarding potential problems with the product and practice of restoration. What is at stake regarding the involvement of people in restoration is examined, focusing on the different impacts volunteers and paid workers have on the value of the practice and outcome of the product.

This diploma thesis attends to the landscape character, the methodics of the evaluation of landscape character and the influence of mining on the landscape character. Příbram, influenced by uranium mining during last century, was chosen as a model area. The aim of this thesis is a comparison of chosen methodics of the evaluation of landscape character in the term of mining district and a creation of new methodics specialized for model area. The thesis focus on the landscape character and restoration ecology in mining areas in theoretical part. There is a description of landscape character protection and preservation, also in terms of law, reclamations and uranium mining. Below, the four chosen methodics are mentioned. In practical part, the diploma thesis characterizes the model area, its history and also current situation including reclamation made. Then there are a comparison of chosen methodics of landscape character evaluation according to elected criteria and a project of methodics for to a evaluation of chosen area. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

Several restoration methods intended to increase the success of aerially‐seeded perennial grasses were assessed to determine their effects on cheatgrass metrics and soil nutrient bioavailabilities. These methods were: 1) imazapic herbicide application (140 g ai ∙ ha‐1, 210 g ai ∙ ha‐1, and no application [control]), 2) vegetation manipulation treatments (50% sagebrush overstory thinning, 100% sagebrush overstory thinning, sagebrush overstory and/or vegetative thatch burning, and no manipulation [control]), and 3) alternative seeding treatments (aerial seeding with raking, aerial seeding with activated carbon [AC] addition, aerial seeding with sucrose addition, and regular aerial seeding [control]). Treatments were arranged in 3‐way factorial designs, which allowed main effects and interactions between treatments to be assessed. Responses were followed for two growing seasons following treatment. Main effects of treatments and their interactions on cheatgrass metrics are described in Chapter 2. Herbicide reduced cheatgrass weights and tiller and spikelet numbers in 2009, but these variables were greater than in no‐herbicide plots in 2010. Burning decreased cheatgrass densities but increased weights and tiller and spikelet numbers in both years. One hundred percent sagebrush thinning resulted in greater cheatgrass weights and tiller and spikelet numbers in both years and greater densities in 2010. Sucrose addition decreased cheatgrass weights and tiller and spikelet numbers in 2009, but increased these variables in 2010. An interaction between AC and herbicide treatment was observed, with AC potentially sequestering and lessening the negative effect of herbicide on cheatgrass. Aerial seeding with raking and 50% sagebrush thinning treatments were not found to significantly affect cheatgrass either year. The effects of treatments (herbicide, 50% sagebrush thinning, aerial seeding on snow, and aerial seeding with raking treatments omitted) on soil nutrient availabilities are described in Chapter 3. We used ion exchange resin (IER) membrane probes to measure extractable quantities of 15 ions over three time periods following treatment applications. Burning resulted in short‐term increases in many soil nutrient availabilities, including nitrate (NO3 ‐), phosphate (H2PO4 ‐), and sulfate (SO4 2‐). Sucrose addition reduced availabilities of NO3 ‐ and H2PO4 ‐ during the first winter and growing season. No changes were detected with AC addition or 100% sagebrush thinning during any sampling time.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg In fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geography and Environmental Studies 31 May 2018 / South Africa will be dependent on coal for power generation for many decades to come, before a complete transition is achieved where more energy will be generated from non-fossil fuel sources. Through case studies of Hendrina and Kendal Power Stations, this study explored how the management of fly ash (FA) waste in South Africa can be improved to minimise its impact on the environment and human health and examined the potential recycling applications that can benefit local communities. The study drew insights from an environmental justice framework to examine the pollution impacts that FA is exposing to the local community. The environmental justice theory is based on the principle that all people have a right to live in an environment that enhances their wellbeing. Empirical evidence obtained from local community’s in-depth interviews revealed that FA is impacting on the health of communities by exposing them to respiratory and other illnesses and it is also affecting their livelihoods which primarily involves farming. A just transition theory was employed to examine potential socio economic opportunities that can be derived from FA recycling to fulfil redistributive measures that can reduce inequality and eradicate poverty in local communities. Some of Eskom’s power stations like Hendrina are nearing the end of their lifespan since their commissioning in the 1960’s and 1970’s. To aid a just transition, ash recycling was found to have the potential to address the socio economic situation of the power station’s employees and the local communities. The study found that local communities generally lack knowledge about coal ash recycling and need to be empowered and supported to partake in ash recycling ventures. The study argues that a shift in the ash recycling regime is needed in order to benefit local communities and facilitate a just transition to a clean energy production. / MT 2018

Ecological restoration has the potential to provide a multitude of benefits, such as conserving biodiversity and supporting natural-resources dependent livelihoods. Tropical dry forests (TDFs) occur in densely populated human-modified landscapes in the tropics and are susceptible to degradation, making them an important biome to restore when degraded. TDFs are also socio-ecological systems, where local people rely on the forest for subsistence and livelihoods and effectively manage them for desire outcomes. People’s reliance on TDFs necessitates restoration projects to take into account more than biophysical and abiotic considerations when they are designed. In this decade of restoration, while there is the much-needed impetus to restore degraded land, to achieve enduring and just outcomes at large spatial scales, restoration projects need to more intentionally address local considerations, such as traditional land tenure systems and livelihood strategies, and goals such as socio-economic development. At the same time, to guide restoration efforts and realistically forecast the consequences of these efforts in the future, there is a need for rapid and accurate assessment tools to quantify the impact of restoration on biodiversity and people at several time steps. In Chapter 1, I use India, a country with high biophysical potential for restoration, as a case study to demonstrate a people-centric approach for identifying restoration opportunities. I find that there is a large overlap between areas of high biophysical restoration potential and high poverty, indicating potential and need to pursue restoration in a manner that addresses both ecological and social goals. In Chapter 2, I study a commonly adopted livelihood strategy, seasonal migration, in forest-dependent communities in India. I find that households in more agricultural and prosperous districts experience lower rates of migration but are more sensitive to climatic variability than households in poorer districts. In Chapter 3, I examine the impact of ecological restoration of a tropical dry forest in central India (CI). I find no significant difference in the cumulative number of bird species detected, but a significant difference in bird communities across the sites. In the lower frequencies dominated by birds and insects, I find that restored sites were positively associated with acoustic space occupancy in comparison to unrestored and low Lantana density (LLD) sites. In Chapter 4, I study the combined socio-ecological outcomes of restoration in the same sites in CI. I find that in the absence of alternative, people rely on Lantana camara, an invasive shrub, for subsistence and livelihoods, in the form of firewood and farm boundaries. I do not find any significant effect of restoration or LLD on people’s perception of ease of forest use, except for the distances covered for grazing, an important indicator of restoration success in this landscape. Finally, I also find that restoration is not associated with any significant changes in soundscapes in the higher frequency ranges dominated by insects and bats. Taken together, my chapters contribute to a greater understanding of the potential for restoration to meet social and ecological goals, the vulnerability of the livelihoods of people living on forest-fringes of TDFs to climate variability and expected and unexpected socio-ecological outcomes of restoration.

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