published_or_final_version / Medical Sciences / Master / Master of Medical Sciences

Background: Cognitive deficit is prominent in schizophrenia patients. We investigated the decision-making ability among schizophrenia patients and healthy controls based on their performance in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), a laboratory task developed for measuring individuals’ decision-making ability. We hypothesized that deficits in IGT performance in schizophrenia patients could be specifically ameliorated by smoking tobacco. In order to test this hypothesis, we compared smoking and non-smoking schizophrenia patients with healthy subjects, on their IGT performance. Method: Ten smokers with schizophrenia, 9 non-smokers with schizophrenia, 16 non-psychiatric non-smokers and 7 non-psychiatric smokers were administered the computerized version of IGT. The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) was used to assess the degree of smoking dependence of subjects and to group the smokers and non-smokers. Results: Subjects with schizophrenia performed significantly worse than non-psychiatric controls on IGT. Moreover, smokers with schizophrenia performed significantly better than non-smokers in the task. Furthermore, when comparing IGT performance of all the 4 groups, non-psychiatric non-smokers performed significantly better than psychiatric smokers in the IGT. Conclusions: Similar to the results of previous research, schizophrenia patients performed worse than controls in the IGT, suggesting impairments in risk/ reward decision-making. Cigarette smoking may partially ameliorate schizophrenia patients’ performance deficits on neurological tasks, including the IGT. These findings on schizophrenia patients are clinically important since it is believed that the ability to make timely and correct decisions can result in good treatment compliance and coping strategies thus facilitates recovery. Last but not least, further research is needed to explain how smoking tobacco facilitates cognitive functioning in schizophrenia patients. / published_or_final_version / Psychological Medicine / Master / Master of Psychological Medicine

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When making decisions, individuals evaluate several possible outcomes of their choice; however, some display heightened reward sensitivity, despite the potential for future negative consequences, which can lead one to make risky choices. Rewards are processed in the mesolimbic dopamine reward system, and this system is in part modulated by genetic polymorphisms that are associated with dopamine transmission. The current study tested if genetic polymorphisms that are associated with enhanced dopamine neurotransmission will be more neurally reward sensitive, score higher on self-reported impulsivity, and make riskier choices. In a sample of 85 participants, five genetic polymorphisms were genotyped and used to create a genetic risk score that represented dopamine transmission efficiency. Two groups (high and low efficiency) were created via median split and then compared on neural reward sensitivity (assessed by event-related potentials, specifically, the medial-frontal negativity [MFN] and the error-related negativity), impulsivity (assessed via self-report), and risky choice (measured using the Balloon Analogue Risk Task and self-report measures). Results indicated that individuals with higher levels of dopamine displayed a less negative MFN and more drinking behaviors than those with lower levels of dopamine. These results suggest that individuals with higher levels of dopamine are less sensitive to punishments, which could lead them to make riskier choices.

Adolescence is a unique time during the human lifespan, where children develop into reproductively competent adults, and many behavioral and psychological changes develop. The goal of this dissertation is to examine the underlying functions related to the emergence of risky adolescent "behaviors," broadly defined to include both physical risks (e.g., drinking or physical fighting) and psychological risks (e.g., anxious or depressive symptoms). In this paper I (1) present a manuscript reviewing and synthesizing the relevant evolutionary theories, which bears testable hypotheses regarding sex differences in risky adolescent behavior, and (2) empirically assess these predictions in two separate but theoretically and conceptually related studies that test for theoretically-based hypothesized relations: one specific to males, one to females. Specifically, I test the proposition that males should be more likely to engage in physically risky behavior than females, and that females should be more likely to engage in affective risks (assessed as sensitivity to social evaluation). These hypotheses are generally supported, but shed light on important environmental factors that are associated with the prevalence of risk-taking, including the degree of closeness within the family, timing of pubertal development, and social status. In general, an early pubertal development and low social status are associated with risk-taking, while closeness to family buffers against the likelihood of engaging in later risky behaviors.

The overall aim was to explore the experiences of sexual risk taking among Chlamydia Trachomatis positive (CT+), HIV positive (HIV+), and HIV tested young women and men. The specific aims were to explore, from a gender perspective, the course of events, the norms, considerations and emotions involved in sexual risk taking in CT+, explore the perception of sexual risk taking in HIV+ youth, and their understanding of why they caught HIV and look at how the Law of Communicable Diseases Act impacts their sexuality. Moreover, to investigate why young adults test for HIV, how they construct the HIV risk, and what implications testing has for them. 42 informants between 17-24 years of age were recruited from a youth clinic in Umeå and from three infection clinics for HIV patients in Sweden. In depth interviews and focus group interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analyzed according to a Grounded Theory approach. The finding revealed that behind sexual risk taking, there was a drive to go steady, where lust and trust guided if sex would take place. In one-night stands women were expected to be less forward compared with men. We found an uneven responsibility concerning condom use where men expected women to be "condom promoters". By catching CT, women experienced guilt, while men felt content through knowing "the source of contamination". Among the HIV+ youth, socio-cultural factors such as; lack of adult supervision, naivité, love, alcohol, drugs, the macho ideal and cultures of silence blinded the informants to the risks and made them vulnerable. By grouping narratives according to degree of consensus in sexual encounters, this demonstrated that sexual risks happened in a context of gendered power relations where the informants had varied agency. The Law of Communicable Diseases Act implied both support and burden for these HIV+ youth. A lot of responsibility was put on them and to be able to handle the infromation duty they tried to switch off lust, switch off the disease, or balance lust and obedience. Among the HIV tested youth, HIV was seen a distant threat. Many had event-driven reasons for testing for HIV; multiple partners being one. Risk zones, like bars were perceived to be a milieu that often was expected to include one-night stands. Responsibility for testing was a gendered issue; "natural" for women, while men rather escaped from responsibility and had a testing resistance. Receiving a "green card" confirmed healthiness and provided relief, and made the informants felt "clean". They could restart with new ambitious, including reconsidering risk. The findings can be used in public health and in health care sectors that work with young people. We present suggestions on how to decrease the spread of STIs: To implement how men could play an equal part in sexual and reproductive health. Promote general CT screening for men. Liberal HIV testing among both young women and men. Promote safer sex behaviour from the uninfected youth, especially focusing on men??. Consider the role of gender and social background in the context of risky behaviours. Give lots of positive rewards concerning HIV disclosure to diminish the risk for HIV transmission.

The study used a cross-sectional survey design to investigate anger, impulsivity, sensation seeking and driver attitudes as correlates for self-reported acts of risky driving behaviour (RDB), among young drivers. A non-probability sample of 306 university students from two universities in the Durban region completed the self-administered questionnaire. A key focus area included an examination of age and gender differences in the above-mentioned constructs. Fifty four percent of the sample were male (N = 165) and 46% female (N = 141). The mean age of males and females in the sample was 29 years and 25 years respectively. The majority of the sample (75%) indicated that they drive either on a daily basis or 3-6 days a week. With regard to the relationship between the various personality constructs and selfreported acts of RDB, the results indicate that driver anger, sensation seeking, a sense of urgency and a lack of premeditation and perseverance were significantly related to self-reported acts of RDB. That is, drivers with higher driver anger, sensation seeking, urgency, and with a greater lack of premeditation and perseverance in daily activities were statistically more likely to report riskier driving acts. With respect to gender differences, males reported significantly more acts of RDB, while females displayed a significantly lower amount of premeditation in their general daily activities. However no other significant gender differences were observed. The results suggested that driver attitudes were significantly related to self-reported acts of RDB on most indicators. That is, drivers with a negative attitude towards RDB-related behaviours reported significantly less engagement in RDB-related actions.Finally, with respect to age differences, older drivers (25 years and older) reported significantly more negative attitudes towards rule violations/speeding and the careless driving of others. Also, older drivers reported a significantly lower sense of sensation seeking and urgency in life. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sci.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

The challenges of adolescence include negotiating risk behaviours such as alcohol use. The high prevalence and frequency of alcohol use among adolescents has been noted with concern, as has the rapidly decreasing age of initiation. Adolescent alcohol use has been found to be associated with numerous factors at intra-personal, inter-personal and contextual levels. This study aimed to explore qualitatively the perceived underlying factors related to alcohol use and binge drinking among adolescent boys, as identified and explained by the boys themselves. Exploration of these factors was guided by Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, the Prototype/Willingness Model and Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory. The study population was comprised of male learners who were at that time in Grade 11 at the school and ranged in age from 16 to 18 years. Three focus group discussions were conducted, each comprising between 8-11 male learners, which were transcribed and analysed thematically in order to identify commonalties and variances among the responses of participants. The Nvivo software program was used to aid analysis. The findings of this study indicate that there are a variety of factors which influence adolescent alcohol use, and which operate individually as well as cumulatively. While adolescent boys are aware of the consequences of alcohol use and binge drinking, they often do not perceive themselves to be vulnerable to these risks. Protective factors include the school identity, team activities such as sports, and a sense of future. In conclusion, adolescent alcohol use is extremely complicated as it is impacted by multiple factors, and thus an awareness and greater understanding of the nature in which these factors interact are important for future interventions. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Train-Surfing is a high-risk phenomenon that has in recent years, become a trend affecting black male youths in South Africa. This study aimed at examining the motives behind the phenomenon. It also aimed at exploring the role that train-surfing plays in constructing a black, South African, masculine identity and what it means to be a train-surfer. A broader aim of the study was to explore the constructions of masculinity and their influence on high-risk behaviours in men. The reason for the choice of topic was that although train-surfing is not a recent phenomenon it appears to be a growing phenomenon in South Africa. Scientific publications are limited thus far with regard to international and local literature on this issue. This exploratory study used the social constructionist theory as a theoretical framework and presents qualitative research findings based on in-depth interviews of six juvenile train-surfers who reside in Soweto, Gauteng. Thematic Content Analysis was used to analyse the data. The study found that train-surfers tend to show evidence of family discord and are inclined to rely on support from their train-surfing peers. All of the participants lacked a substantial father figure, however many of them showed evidence of consistent support from mother figures. Reasons for participation in train-surfing include impressing young females, a desire for status and fame and peer pressure. Some participants perceived the activity as a sport or hobby, whilst others used symbols of addiction in describing the phenomenon. It was also found that the train-surfing participants used train-surfing as a means to define their identity as young, black males living in South Africa. Train-surfing was found to be associated with other high-risk activities such as taking drugs, drinking alcohol and gang-related behaviours. These findings are important as they highlight the role of high-risk behaviour in adolescents and uncover much needed research regarding men and masculinities in South Africa. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Syftet med studien är att identifiera om det finns någon skillnad i risk mellan svenska män och kvinnors aktieportföljer. I undersökningen av individernas riskbenägenhet används tre riskmått, total risk, marknadsrisk och unik risk, som enligt portföljteorin går att koppla till en individs aktieportfölj. Ålder och inkomst används som kontrollvariabler för att studera om eventuella skillnader i riskbenägenhet mellan könen kan förklaras av andra faktorer än kön. Studien baseras på en kvantitativ undersökning och sekundärdata från en unik databas. Urvalet för studien består av knappt 900 000 observationer av svenska individers aktieportföljer, med kontroll för kön, ålder och förvärvsinkomst. Resultatet av studien visar att det föreligger signifikanta skillnader mellan könens riskbenägenhet. Studien finner dock inga tydliga resultat för att män skulle vara mer riskbenägna än kvinnor, då könen tar olika hög risk beroende på vilket riskmått som avses. Resultaten visar på att skillnader mellan könens riskbenägenhet även existerar efter att variablerna ålder och inkomst studerats. / The purpose of this study is to identify whether there is any difference in risk between the stock portfolios of Swedish men and women. In the investigation of individual’ risk propensity, three measures of risk are used, total risk, market risk and unique risk, which according to the portfolio theory can be linked to an individual’s stock portfolio. Age and income are used as control variables to study whether any differences in risk propensity between the genders can be explained by other factors than gender. The study is based on a quantitative study and secondary data obtained from a unique database. The sample for the study consists of nearly 900 000 observations of Swedish individual’s stock portfolios, controlling for gender, age and income. The results of the study show that there are significant differences between the genders’ risk propensity. The study finds, however, no clear evidence that the men would be more risk-prone than women. The genders take different levels of high risk depending on which measure of risk involved. The results show that differences between the genders’ risk propensity also exists after studying the control variables age and income.