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Ecosystem metabolism is an important indicator of aquatic ecosystem function. This thesis concerns ecosystem metabolism as recorded by daily variation in dissolved oxygen (DO) and δ18O-DO in an impacted temperate river network, the Grand River, Ontario, Canada, and specifically addresses the effects of stream size and human disturbance including agriculture, deforestation, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). A suite of 14 sites in the Grand River network was selected with stream sizes varying from 2nd to 7th order. A transient model of river ecosystem oxygen metabolism, ROM-TM, was developed in order to calculate river ecosystem metabolic rates and reaeration rates from field observation of changes in DO and δ18O-DO. ROM-TM is an inverse modeling approach programmed using MATLAB. Key parameters describing the main metabolic processes, gas exchange, and isotopic fractionation, such as maximum photosynthetic rate (Pm), photosynthetic efficiency (a), respiration rate at 20℃ (R20), gas exchange coefficient (k), respiration isotopic fractionation factor (aR), and photorespiration coefficient (βR), can be obtained by matching of model predictions with field data. Besides being capable of teasing apart metabolic processes and gas exchange to provide daily average estimates of metabolic parameters at the ecosystem level, ROM-TM can be used to address issues related to light including light saturation phenomena at the ecosystem level, the effect of cloud cover on metabolic balance and photorespiration. Primary production responses to light along a longitudinal gradient in the Grand River network were described by means of P-I curves. Both light-limited and light-saturated conditions were observed. Production parameters Pm and Ik in the Grand River network exhibited an increase with stream order, while a was independent of stream size. However, a did vary among and within sites. Higher light availability in small and middle-sized streams without riparian trees was associated with high Pm, Ik and Ec, but low a. Ecosystem-level Pm in both small periphyton-dominated streams and large macrophyte-dominated rivers in the Grand River basin were generally less than community-level Pm values from the literature. However, two Grand River sites had comparable Pm to literature-derived Pm due to the prolific growth of macrophytes supported by high nutrient effluents from upstream WWTPs. Ecosystem-level a in my study streams were also less than those at the community level, indicating there was a declining trend of this parameter with scale, from individual, community to ecosystem. Derived parameters (e.g., Ik, Ec, and saturation point) increased from the individual level to the community level, and then to the ecosystem level. From May to early October, metabolic rates in the Grand River network (gross primary production, GPP = 0.4 to 20 and ecosystem respiration, ER = 2 to 33 g O2 m-2 day-1) were within the broad range of metabolic rates occurring in the temperate region, regardless of stream size. The Grand River network is a net heterotrophic system. The total GPP and ER for whole basin was 3.3e+08 and 4.2e+08 g O2 day-1, respectively. Reach geomorphology controls the spatial patterns of stream metabolism in the Grand River network, although the spatial patterns may be modified by effects of human disturbance on riparian vegetation, nutrients and other factors. Stream order and channel width, as measures of stream size, are good predictors of metabolic rates and ratios of GPP: ER from small streams to the central Grand River. Ecosystem metabolic rates and ratios generally increase with stream size, but with site-specific variation. The Grand River network is experiencing effects of human disturbance, mostly downstream of the urban areas and least in small streams with remaining riparian forest. The small and middle-sized streams (2nd to 4th order) without riparian trees in agriculture regions in the Grand River basin did not exhibit significantly different GPP and ER than their counterparts with riparian trees. The stimulative effect of increased light availability due to open canopy on GPP in non-shaded streams may be offset by shading from stream banks and riparian grasses, and unstable sediments resulting from agricultural activities. Large river sites impacted by WWTPs had significantly increased metabolic rates, both GPP and ER, compared to two upstream sites impacted by agriculture only. This result suggests that urban areas cause impacts on the Grand River that are superimposed on the impacts of agriculture. Three aspects of metabolism of the Grand River differ from the general pattern for the temperate regions: (1) a increase trend of GPP: ER ratios with stream size from 2nd to 7th order; (2) overall, human activities in the Grand River watershed have stronger positive effects on the GPP than on the ER; (3) the middle-sized to large river sites (5th-7th order) had greater influence than small to middle-sized streams (2nd-5th order) in the Grand River on overall GPP and ER. The general trend of GPP: ER ratio in tropical, subtropical, temperate, and global data approximately conforms to the predictions of the River Continuum Concept (RCC). However, the maximum ratio of GPP: ER in mid-reaches of river networks is not usually >1 as proposed in the RCC. There is a latitude and stream size shift phenomenon regarding where the peak ratio of GPP: ER occurs in each climate zone. The maximum GPP: ER ratio is higher at higher latitudes and occurs at higher order streams. The study of stream ecosystem metabolism can benefit from the addition of the second oxygen budget, δ18O-DO, in four ways: (1) it is better to use both DO and δ18O-DO budgets, rather than DO only, in sampling protocols with low temporal frequency but high spatial frequency; (2) the δ18O-DO time series data can provide relatively independent constraints on parameter estimation; (3) the addition of δ18O-DO in using two oxygen budgets to quantify metabolic rates provides a way, the cross-plot of δ18O-DO against fraction of DO saturation, to indicate trophic status of an aquatic ecosystem; and (4) the addition of δ18O-DO can provide an estimate of aR at the ecosystem level that can be used to understand factors affecting respiration.

Ecosystem metabolism is an important indicator of aquatic ecosystem function. This thesis concerns ecosystem metabolism as recorded by daily variation in dissolved oxygen (DO) and δ18O-DO in an impacted temperate river network, the Grand River, Ontario, Canada, and specifically addresses the effects of stream size and human disturbance including agriculture, deforestation, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). A suite of 14 sites in the Grand River network was selected with stream sizes varying from 2nd to 7th order. A transient model of river ecosystem oxygen metabolism, ROM-TM, was developed in order to calculate river ecosystem metabolic rates and reaeration rates from field observation of changes in DO and δ18O-DO. ROM-TM is an inverse modeling approach programmed using MATLAB. Key parameters describing the main metabolic processes, gas exchange, and isotopic fractionation, such as maximum photosynthetic rate (Pm), photosynthetic efficiency (a), respiration rate at 20℃ (R20), gas exchange coefficient (k), respiration isotopic fractionation factor (aR), and photorespiration coefficient (βR), can be obtained by matching of model predictions with field data. Besides being capable of teasing apart metabolic processes and gas exchange to provide daily average estimates of metabolic parameters at the ecosystem level, ROM-TM can be used to address issues related to light including light saturation phenomena at the ecosystem level, the effect of cloud cover on metabolic balance and photorespiration. Primary production responses to light along a longitudinal gradient in the Grand River network were described by means of P-I curves. Both light-limited and light-saturated conditions were observed. Production parameters Pm and Ik in the Grand River network exhibited an increase with stream order, while a was independent of stream size. However, a did vary among and within sites. Higher light availability in small and middle-sized streams without riparian trees was associated with high Pm, Ik and Ec, but low a. Ecosystem-level Pm in both small periphyton-dominated streams and large macrophyte-dominated rivers in the Grand River basin were generally less than community-level Pm values from the literature. However, two Grand River sites had comparable Pm to literature-derived Pm due to the prolific growth of macrophytes supported by high nutrient effluents from upstream WWTPs. Ecosystem-level a in my study streams were also less than those at the community level, indicating there was a declining trend of this parameter with scale, from individual, community to ecosystem. Derived parameters (e.g., Ik, Ec, and saturation point) increased from the individual level to the community level, and then to the ecosystem level. From May to early October, metabolic rates in the Grand River network (gross primary production, GPP = 0.4 to 20 and ecosystem respiration, ER = 2 to 33 g O2 m-2 day-1) were within the broad range of metabolic rates occurring in the temperate region, regardless of stream size. The Grand River network is a net heterotrophic system. The total GPP and ER for whole basin was 3.3e+08 and 4.2e+08 g O2 day-1, respectively. Reach geomorphology controls the spatial patterns of stream metabolism in the Grand River network, although the spatial patterns may be modified by effects of human disturbance on riparian vegetation, nutrients and other factors. Stream order and channel width, as measures of stream size, are good predictors of metabolic rates and ratios of GPP: ER from small streams to the central Grand River. Ecosystem metabolic rates and ratios generally increase with stream size, but with site-specific variation. The Grand River network is experiencing effects of human disturbance, mostly downstream of the urban areas and least in small streams with remaining riparian forest. The small and middle-sized streams (2nd to 4th order) without riparian trees in agriculture regions in the Grand River basin did not exhibit significantly different GPP and ER than their counterparts with riparian trees. The stimulative effect of increased light availability due to open canopy on GPP in non-shaded streams may be offset by shading from stream banks and riparian grasses, and unstable sediments resulting from agricultural activities. Large river sites impacted by WWTPs had significantly increased metabolic rates, both GPP and ER, compared to two upstream sites impacted by agriculture only. This result suggests that urban areas cause impacts on the Grand River that are superimposed on the impacts of agriculture. Three aspects of metabolism of the Grand River differ from the general pattern for the temperate regions: (1) a increase trend of GPP: ER ratios with stream size from 2nd to 7th order; (2) overall, human activities in the Grand River watershed have stronger positive effects on the GPP than on the ER; (3) the middle-sized to large river sites (5th-7th order) had greater influence than small to middle-sized streams (2nd-5th order) in the Grand River on overall GPP and ER. The general trend of GPP: ER ratio in tropical, subtropical, temperate, and global data approximately conforms to the predictions of the River Continuum Concept (RCC). However, the maximum ratio of GPP: ER in mid-reaches of river networks is not usually >1 as proposed in the RCC. There is a latitude and stream size shift phenomenon regarding where the peak ratio of GPP: ER occurs in each climate zone. The maximum GPP: ER ratio is higher at higher latitudes and occurs at higher order streams. The study of stream ecosystem metabolism can benefit from the addition of the second oxygen budget, δ18O-DO, in four ways: (1) it is better to use both DO and δ18O-DO budgets, rather than DO only, in sampling protocols with low temporal frequency but high spatial frequency; (2) the δ18O-DO time series data can provide relatively independent constraints on parameter estimation; (3) the addition of δ18O-DO in using two oxygen budgets to quantify metabolic rates provides a way, the cross-plot of δ18O-DO against fraction of DO saturation, to indicate trophic status of an aquatic ecosystem; and (4) the addition of δ18O-DO can provide an estimate of aR at the ecosystem level that can be used to understand factors affecting respiration.

Digital river network dataset is an important source of information in any aspect of water management decision making. It is also a base for modelling or scientific research in many different fields. Development of the dataset in the Czech Republic had been fragmented in a past and as a result three different datasets have been developed that cover the whole of the state's territory. The datasets contain different geometries, different and often conflicting attributes and serve different purposes. Today the time has come that water management decision makers have realised that the situation is no longer sustainable and make effort to merge the datasets into one. The task brings in several technical issues and a potential for severe legal consequences. The aim of this study is to develop a methodological approach to merging the existing datasets into one. This methodological approach to decision which of the conflicting or different attributes should be adopted is based on assumption that the existing datasets will be merged into one consisting the best of all. Comparison of features in the existing dataset will inevitably lead to many conflicts when it will be necessary to decide which of the considered features should be adopted to the resulting dataset. The study considers the main purposes which...

<p>By concentrating materials and increasing the speed with which rainfall is conveyed off of the landscape, nearly all forms of land use change lead to predictable shifts in the hydrologic, thermal, and chemical regimes of receiving waters that can lead to the local extirpation of sensitive aquatic biota. In Central Appalachian river networks, alkaline mine drainage (AlkMD) derived from mountaintop removal mining for coal (MTM) noticeably simplifies macroinvertebrate communities. In this dissertation, I have used this distinct chemical regime shift as a platform to move beyond current understanding of chemical pollution in river networks. In Chapter Two, I applied a new model, the Hierarchical Diversity Decision Framework (HiDDeF) to a macroinvertebrate dataset along a gradient of AlkMD. By using this new modeling tool, I showed that current AlkMD water quality standards allow one-quarter of regional macroinvertebrates to decline to half of their maximum abundances. In Chapter Three, I conducted a field study in the Mud River, WV to understand how AlkMD influences patterns in aquatic insect production. This work revealed roughly 3-fold declines in annual production of sensitive taxa throughout the year in reaches affected by AlkMD. These declines were more severe during summer base flow when pollutant concentrations were higher, thereby preventing sensitive organisms from completing their life cycles. Finally, in Chapter Four I described the idea of chemical fragmentation in river networks by performing a geospatial analysis of chemical pollution in Central Appalachia. In this work I showed that the ~30% of headwaters that remain after MTM intensification over the last four decades support ~10% of macroinvertebrates not found in mined reaches. Collectively my work moves beyond the simple tools used to understand the static, local consequences of chemical pollution in freshwater ecosystems.</p> / Dissertation

The work presented in this dissertation informs on river network modeling at large scales using geographic information systems, parallel computing and the latest advancements of atmospheric and land surface modeling. This work is motivated by the availability of a vector-based Geographic Information System dataset that describes the networks of streams and rivers in the United States, and how they are connected. A land surface model called Noah-distributed is used to provide lateral inflow to an NHDPlus river network in the Guadalupe River Basin in Texas. Challenges related to the projection of gridded hydrographic data from a coordinate system to another are investigated. The different representations of the shape of the Earth used in atmospheric science (spherical) and hydrology (spheroidal) can lead to a significant North-South shift on the order of 20 km at mid latitudes. A river network model called RAPID is developed and applied in a four-year study of the Guadalupe and San Antonio River Basins in Texas using the river network of NHDPlus. Gage measurements are used to estimate flow wave celerities in a river network and to assess the quality of RAPID flow computations. The performance of RAPID in a massively-parallel computing environment is tested and further investigation of its scalability is needed before using RAPID at the state or federal level. The replacement by RAPID of the river routing scheme used in SIM-France -- a hydro-meteorological model -- is investigated in a ten-year study of river flow in France. While the formulation of RAPID improves the functionality of SIM-France, the flow simulations are comparable in accuracy to those previously obtained by SIM-France. Sub-basin parameterization was found to improve model results. A single criterion for quantifying the quality of river flow simulations using several river gages globally in a river network is developed that normalizes the square error of modeled flow to allow equal treatment of all gaging stations regardless of the magnitude of flow. The use of this criterion as the cost function for parameter estimation in RAPID allows better results than by increasing the degree of spatial variability in model parameters. / text

Sediment, an integral part of rivers and watersheds, is eroded from, stored in, and transported through various watershed components. Rivers often receive sediment in the form of episodic, discrete pulses from a variety of natural and anthropogenic processes, this sediment can be transported downstream along the bed or suspended in the water column. Most sediment measurements are focused on the component suspended in the water column. Recent advances in data collection techniques have substantially increased both the resolution and spatial scale of data on suspended sediment dynamics, which is helpful in linking small, site-scale measurements of transport processes in the field with large-scale modeling efforts. Part of this research evaluates the accuracy of the latest laser diffraction instrument for suspended-sediment measurement in rivers, LISST-SL2 for measuring suspended sediment concentration (SSC), particle size distribution (PSD), and velocity by comparing to concurrent physical samples analyzed in a lab for SSC and PSD, and velocity measured using an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) at 11 sites in Washington and Virginia during 2018-2020. Another part of this work employs a 1-D river network, bed material transport model to investigate the magnitude, timing, and persistence of downstream changes due to the introduction of sediment pulses in a linear river network. We specifically focus on comparing bed responses between mixed and uniform grain size sediment pulses. Then the model capability is utilized to explore the control of hydrograph structure on debris flow sediment transport through a more complex river network at different time horizons. Another part of this work investigates the effect of differences in spatial distribution of debris flow sediment input to the network by analyzing corresponding tributary and mainstem characteristics. Based on an extensive dataset, our results highlight the need for a correction of the raw LISST-SL2 measurements to improve the estimation of effective density and particle size distribution with the help of a physical sample. Simulation results from the river network model show that bed response is primarily influenced by the sediment-pulse grain size and distribution. Intermediate mixed-size pulses are likely to have the largest downstream impact because finer sizes translate quickly and coarser sizes (median bed gravel size and larger) disperse slowly. Furthermore, a mixed-size pulse, with a smaller median grain size than the bed, increases bed mobility more than a uniform-size pulse. While investigating the hydrologic control on debris flow simulation, this study finds that differences between transport by a 30-year daily hydrograph and simplified hydrographs were greatest in the first few years, but errors decreased to around 10% after 10 years. Our simulation results highlight that the sequence of flows (initial high/low flow) is less important for transport of finer sediment. We show that such network-scale modeling can quantitatively identify geomorphically significant network characteristics for efficient transport from tributaries to the mainstem, and eventually to the outlet. Results suggest that watershed area and slope characteristics are important to predict aggradation hotspots in a network. However, to predict aggradation and fluvial geomorphic responses to variations in sediment supply from river network characteristics more confidently, more widespread (in several other river networks) model applications with field validation would be useful. This work has important implications for river management, as it allows us to better predict geomorphically significant tributaries and potential impact on downstream locations, which are important for river biodiversity. Model results lead the way to use of simplified flow hydrographs for different timescales, which is crucial in large-scale modeling as it is often restricted by computational capacity. Finally, given the ability for reliable quantification of a high-resolution time-series of different suspended-sediment characteristics, in-stream laser diffraction offers great potential to advance our understanding of suspended-sediment transport. / Doctor of Philosophy / Rivers receive sediment from different natural and human sources, and water moves this sediment in various ways. These ways include along the bottom of the stream or suspended in the water. Quantifying suspended sediment in streams is an important step to estimate the threat to riverine environments as suspended sediments not only carry chemicals and pollutants, but also interact with the river bottom to affect the characteristics of streams. Measurement of suspended-sediment concentration and particle-size is critical for many engineering, ecological, and river-structure issues, but obtaining an accurate measurement of sediment quantity in a river is challenging. The recent advancement of a laser diffraction instrument allows us to obtain frequent measurements of suspended-sediment concentration and particle size by volume. We applied the most recent such instrument at 11 sites in Washington and Virginia during 2018-2020, along with concurrent water samples to measure suspended-sediment concentration and particle size by mass in a laboratory. Our analysis suggests that at least one supporting physical mass measurement be obtained to improve the estimation from laser measurement. Beside this site-scale measurement, we apply a large-scale river network model to estimate how sediment moves along the bed of rivers at large spatial extents. We simulate how this added sediment results in downstream changes in the amount of sediment in the river channel. We compare observed changes in the elevation of the stream bottom and sediment accumulation rates in a downstream lake to model results. Then we investigate the magnitude, timing, and persistence of downstream changes due to the introduction of added sediment by comparing the changes against a baseline condition (without the added sediment). We find that the added sediment that is half as large as on the river bottom and with a range of sizes are likely to affect the largest downstream changes because smaller sizes move quickly and larger sizes move slowly. Furthermore, added sediment that is smaller than on the river bottom and with a range of sizes help more sediment on the river bottom move than if that sediment addition all had the same particle size. We also employ this model to explore the effect of flow variation and river characteristics on sediment movement. Comparing between a 30-year flow record and simplified flow records, we show that results from simplified flow records vary initially, but errors decrease after 10 years. That is, both flow records result in similar sediment movement in the long-term. In terms of aggradation from added sediment, results show that the characteristics of elevation change of the river bottom play a vital role along with the contributing landscape area. This work has important implications for river management, as it not only allows us to accurately measure suspended sediment with an advanced instrument, but also better understand how rivers and aquatic habitat are affected by variations in added sediment.

Yes / With the rapid urbanization of cities around the world, water security, flood control, and urban hydro-environmental management have become important tasks to tackle. The majority of large to megacities are located in delta regions surrounded by river networks, due to their historical development. They are not only threatened by floods from upstream river basins, but also endangered by the challenges of urban hydro-environmental governance. Fast urbanization causes interference and fragmentation of the river system and impedes its hydrodynamic potential, which is a primary driver of flooding, pollution, and sediment deposition. Consequently, water security and environmental problems are major issues for sustainable urban development. The purpose of this Research Topic (RT) is to examine the latest advances and developments in addressing the challenges in urban fluvial and freshwater systems as well as to discuss the opportunities they create for improvement in modelling, management practices and governance. This RT consists of twenty research articles from 99 authors under three different research themes, which feature contributions on urban space management, water pollution mitigation and urban watercourse behavioural sciences to strengthen resilience. The RT includes the following themes: • State-of-the-art numerical models, • Urban environmental and hydrological advances, and • Sustainable cities implementation.

Yes

Key theoretical and empirical results from the past two decades have established that peak discharges exhibit power-law, or scaling, relation with drainage area across multiple scales of time and space. This relationship takes the form Q(A)= $#945;AΘ where Q is peak discharge, A is the drainage area, Θ is the flood scaling exponent, and α is the intercept. Motivated by seminal empirical studies that show that the flood scaling parameters α and Θ change from one rainfall-runoff event to another, this dissertation explores how certain rainfall and catchment physical properties control the flood scaling exponent and intercept at the rainfall-runoff event scale using a combination of extensive numerical simulation experiments and analysis of observational data from the Iowa River basin, Iowa. Results show that Θ generally decreases with increasing values of rainfall intensity, runoff coefficient, and hillslope overland flow velocity, whereas its value generally increases with increasing rainfall duration. Moreover, while the flood scaling intercept is primarily controlled by the excess rainfall intensity, it increases with increasing runoff coefficient and hillslope overland flow velocity. Results also show that the temporal intermittency structure of rainfall has a significant effect on the scaling structure of peak discharges. These results highlight the fact that the flood scaling parameters are able to be estimated from the aforementioned catchment rainfall and physical variables, which can be measured either directly or indirectly using in situ or remote sensing techniques. The dissertation also proposes and demonstrates a new flood forecasting framework that is based on the scaling theory of floods. The results of the study mark a step forward to provide a physically meaningful framework for regionalization of flood frequencies and hence to solve the long standing hydrologic problem of flood prediction in ungauged basins.