This study investigates the effects that lichens have on rock surfaces in which ancient rock art (petroglyphs and pictographs) may be found. The study area includes four sites in the United States: one quartzite site in southwest Minnesota, two sandstone sites in Wyoming, and one volcanic site in Central New Mexico. One additional granitic site studied is located northeast Queensland, Australia. The questions driving the pursuit of this dissertation research are: 1. How does the chemistry of the rock change with weathering and how deep is the profile? 2. Do lichens cause differential chemical changes? 3. How does the chemistry of the unaltered rock influence these changes? 4. Do lichens strip the patina or “desert varnish” from the rock surfaces? The results of this research confirm from elemental chemical analyses that geochemical changes do take place in the presence of lichens. The combined mechanical and chemical processes contribute to the degradation and greater erodability of all the rock surfaces studied. Chemically, we have demonstrated that cements that hold grains of rocks together can be dissoluble by lichen byproducts in the presence of an aqueous environment whether the rocks are sandstone or granite. This information regarding the mechanical and geochemical processes at work in natural environments has significant practical benefit for the management, conservation, and preservation of rock art sites everywhere.

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Traditional stylistic classifications have not provided conclusive dates for the rock art of the Sahara, and the imagery can therefore not be placed securely in its cultural or environmental context. This thesis proposes a new methodology in which content and patina of the engravings are used to establish a chronological sequence, against the background of changing palaeoenvironmental conditions. This framework can then be used to explore aspects of the relationship between the rock art and the changing Holocene landscape. The engravings of the Wadi al‐Hayat, which were recently recorded by the Fezzan Rock Art Project, form the basis of this research. A total of 2466 images of animals were individually analysed and entered into a database. The depicted species are shown to reflect the local fauna, and their habitats coincide with the palaeoclimatic conditions of the central Sahara. Additionally, recent geomorphological analyses of the rock surfaces of the Messak provide a chronology for the patina, and show that the formation of each type of patina was dependent on environmental conditions. Through analyses of the animal engravings, categorised according to positively identifiable species and patina types, this thesis demonstrates a direct correlation between the content (i.e. species depicted) and patina of the engravings, and the palaeoenvironment. Both content and patina of the engravings indicate a development from wet savanna to dry savanna, and finally to desert conditions, consistent with the Holocene climatic sequence. This provides a chronological framework for the engravings and places them into a palaeoenvironmental context. The locations of the engravings of each patina group also correspond to the changing lake levels of the al‐Hayat palaeolake identified in previous palaeoenvironmental research projects, which in turn supports the chronology of the engravings. Through spatial analyses, the locations and landscapes preferred by the engravers for the creation of rock art can be identified, whilst the new chronological sequence allows us to explore changes in the cultural conventions that underlie the creation of the engravings. As well as providing a chronological framework and environmental context for the engravings for the Wadi al‐Hayat, the research presented in this thesis therefore has the potential to change our understanding of Saharan rock art.

<p>This thesis follows and builds upon a previous study at the rock engraving site of Driekopseiland (Morris 2002). The earlier findings are here contrasted with another site in the area, namely Wildebeest Kuil, as a means to highlight the variability which is a feature of the rock art of the Northern Cape as a whole. The main thrust of the thesis, which refers to a number of other rock art sites in the region, is to model the implications of this variability relative to social context and history in the precolonial past. Significant empirical obstacles, particularly the difficulties associated with dating rock art, render some aspects of the enterprise intractable for the time being. But opportunities are pursued to advance and evaluate ideas as to the social mechanisms and processes which might be implicated in the making and re-making of images on rock and in the generation of the diversity that is manifest in the rock art as it is found today. Whereas other approaches have tended to explain difference relative to social entities such as &lsquo / cultures&rsquo / or &lsquo / ethnic groups&rsquo / , this thesis offers, as a point of departure, a critique of received concepts, reconsidering some of the fundamental metaphors and assessing the elaboration of analogies that have been used in the past. It proposes that better theoretical footholds might be those that explain variability relative to process and movement. It invokes Tim Ingold&rsquo / s concept of a meshwork of dynamic relationships of people immersed in the world, of &lsquo / entanglements&rsquo / that refer to multiple mechanisms that might explain how rock art has changed in place and time. The pertinence of these ideas is shown with reference to specific instances in the Northern Cape.As a parallel weave in this study, there is a concern over the social role of archaeology, with discussion on the burgeoning salience of rock art beyond the academy, in the heritage and tourism sectors and amongst descendants of the Khoean. The thesis gives consideration to the role of museums and research in terms of &ldquo / heritage in practice,&rdquo / and seeks to develop a discourse in which, following Alexander, &ldquo / everything can be perceived as changing and changeable&rdquo / &ndash / an underlying theme throughout the study. The thesis does not bring empirical closure to the topic but suggests a programme for future engagement, having opened up and shown the relevance of wider theoretical insights for addressing the variability in the rock art of the Northern Cape.</p>

<p>This thesis follows and builds upon a previous study at the rock engraving site of Driekopseiland (Morris 2002). The earlier findings are here contrasted with another site in the area, namely Wildebeest Kuil, as a means to highlight the variability which is a feature of the rock art of the Northern Cape as a whole. The main thrust of the thesis, which refers to a number of other rock art sites in the region, is to model the implications of this variability relative to social context and history in the precolonial past. Significant empirical obstacles, particularly the difficulties associated with dating rock art, render some aspects of the enterprise intractable for the time being. But opportunities are pursued to advance and evaluate ideas as to the social mechanisms and processes which might be implicated in the making and re-making of images on rock and in the generation of the diversity that is manifest in the rock art as it is found today. Whereas other approaches have tended to explain difference relative to social entities such as &lsquo / cultures&rsquo / or &lsquo / ethnic groups&rsquo / , this thesis offers, as a point of departure, a critique of received concepts, reconsidering some of the fundamental metaphors and assessing the elaboration of analogies that have been used in the past. It proposes that better theoretical footholds might be those that explain variability relative to process and movement. It invokes Tim Ingold&rsquo / s concept of a meshwork of dynamic relationships of people immersed in the world, of &lsquo / entanglements&rsquo / that refer to multiple mechanisms that might explain how rock art has changed in place and time. The pertinence of these ideas is shown with reference to specific instances in the Northern Cape.As a parallel weave in this study, there is a concern over the social role of archaeology, with discussion on the burgeoning salience of rock art beyond the academy, in the heritage and tourism sectors and amongst descendants of the Khoean. The thesis gives consideration to the role of museums and research in terms of &ldquo / heritage in practice,&rdquo / and seeks to develop a discourse in which, following Alexander, &ldquo / everything can be perceived as changing and changeable&rdquo / &ndash / an underlying theme throughout the study. The thesis does not bring empirical closure to the topic but suggests a programme for future engagement, having opened up and shown the relevance of wider theoretical insights for addressing the variability in the rock art of the Northern Cape.</p>

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This thesis follows and builds upon a previous study at the rock engraving site of Driekopseiland (Morris 2002). The earlier findings are here contrasted with another site in the area, namely Wildebeest Kuil, as a means to highlight the variability which is a feature of the rock art of the Northern Cape as a whole. The main thrust of the thesis, which refers to a number of other rock art sites in the region, is to model the implications of this variability relative to social context and history in the precolonial past. Significant empirical obstacles, particularly the difficulties associated with dating rock art, render some aspects of the enterprise intractable for the time being. But opportunities are pursued to advance and evaluate ideas as to the social mechanisms and processes which might be implicated in the making and re-making of images on rock and in the generation of the diversity that is manifest in the rock art as it is found today. Whereas other approaches have tended to explain difference relative to social entities such as ‘cultures’ or ‘ethnic groups’, this thesis offers, as a point of departure, a critique of received concepts, reconsidering some of the fundamental metaphors and assessing the elaboration of analogies that have been used in the past. It proposes that better theoretical footholds might be those that explain variability relative to process and movement. It invokes Tim Ingold’s concept of a meshwork of dynamic relationships of people immersed in the world, of ‘entanglements’ that refer to multiple mechanisms that might explain how rock art has changed in place and time. The pertinence of these ideas is shown with reference to specific instances in the Northern Cape.As a parallel weave in this study, there is a concern over the social role of archaeology, with discussion on the burgeoning salience of rock art beyond the academy, in the heritage and tourism sectors and amongst descendants of the Khoean. The thesis gives consideration to the role of museums and research in terms of “heritage in practice,” and seeks to develop a discourse in which, following Alexander, “everything can be perceived as changing and changeable” – an underlying theme throughout the study. The thesis does not bring empirical closure to the topic but suggests a programme for future engagement, having opened up and shown the relevance of wider theoretical insights for addressing the variability in the rock art of the Northern Cape

This project investigates Saharan pastoralist rock-art (7500-3000BP), with a particular focus on the engravings of the Messak Plateau in southwest Libya. Taking an anthropological approach, the art is examined within the context of the lives of its creators - transhumant cattle-herders who occupied the plateau seasonally. Drawing from fieldwork in Libya together with data from multiple expeditions in the Sahara, the study addresses a major lacuna in Saharan research by focusing on materially constituted, as-lived dimensions at the micro scale. A fundamental but archaeologically elusive aspect of lived experience is a consideration of 'movement', both physical and esoteric. Its incorporation is central to this project, forming a multi-aspected theoretical framework and a methodological tool. Augmented by input from specialists in geomorphology, pastoralism, stone sculpting and animal behaviour, this movement-driven focus has produced a more developed picture of the Messak herder lives, advancing our understanding of these particular non-text, somatic societies. A singular contribution is the creation of a hypothetical model for small-scale, quotidian pastoralist practices, which expands upon the archaeological evidence, fleshing out details of a well-systematised form of dairy pastoralism involving controlled breeding and the processing of milk products. At the same time it is proposed that the herders' relationship with their cattle was one of partnership rather than ownership, involving trans-species empathy and a valuation of animal personhood. This viewpoint is part of a broader set of animal-human relations reflecting a cosmological order that diverges from modern, Western ontological constructs. Other significant findings include detailed information on the role and identity of the image-maker, revisionist data on the amount of effort and skill expended in carving processes, and an examination of the ways in which rock-art was used to manifest social emotional concerns. These were expressed via animal emotions portrayed in the rock-art, and also through performative, gestural markings associated with the imagery. Such expressions include apotropaic, supplicatory or other interactions involving communication with unseen powers.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-02-29Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:47:43Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 borges_ccl_dr_assis.pdf: 4741629 bytes, checksum: c1d7803ed4befdecf64b7b8442e347c2 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Tendo em vista as intensas pesquisas realizadas na área de pré-história e arqueologia, que buscam compreender a presença de antigos grupos humanos nas Américas, o presente trabalho volta-se para os registros rupestres do Seridó, analisando numa perspectiva da comunicação e das práticas ritualíticas em manifestação ao sagrado. Os estudos realizados até então sobre a temática, têm tido diferentes opiniões acerca desses registros, tanto em relação a sua finalidade quanto a sua interpretação. A região do Seridó, especialmente nos município de Carnaúba dos Dantas e Parelhas, apresenta uma rica quantidade de registros rupestres, e estando classificados dentro da Tradição Nordeste, possuem grafismos de ação que mostram, particularmente, a vida cotidiana de seus executores. As cenas de caça, dança, pesca e rituais demonstram como viviam esses grupos humanos e como eles interagiam com o ecossistema. Diante da necessidade de se comunicar e de demonstrar uma importância dada as suas ações cotidianas, esses grupos humanos realizaram tais pinturas em áreas especialmente escolhidas para esse fim, sendo estes na sua maioria, de caráter não habitáveis. Com isso, as pinturas rupestres nos levam a uma ótica de que tanto os grafismos quanto os locais onde estes se encontram possuem uma relação simbólica, e cujo significado impera sob a órbita do cotidiano. / In view of the intense research carried through the area of prehistory and archaeology, that they search to understand the presence of old human groups in Americas, the present work is turned towards to rock-art registers of the Seridó, analyzing in a perspective of the communication and the ritualistic practices in manifestation to the sacred. The studies carried through until then about the topic, have different opinions about these registers, as much in relation its purpose as well its interpretation. The region of the Seridó, especially in the city of Carnaúba dos Dantas and Parelhas, present a rich amount of rock-art, and being classified inside of the Northeast Tradition, possess graphisms of action that they show, particularly, the daily life of its executors. The hunting scenes, dance, fishing and rituals demonstrate as these human groups lived and as they interacted with the ecosystem. Ahead of the necessity of communicating and demonstrating to a given importance its daily actions, these human groups had carried through such images in especially areas chosen for this aim, being these in its majority, of character not inhabitable. With this, the rock-art takes us to an optics of that as much the graphisms as well as the places where these meet, possess a relation between the symbol and its meanings and its sanctity.

This work addresses two key issues in current rock art research, the first theoretical, the second exemplary. Researchers often write of rock art regions without according the concept sufficient theoretical consideration. I argue that rock art regions are more usefully defined by the presence and absence of ethnographically informed motifs than by aesthetics. I support my argument by reference to two understudied rock art regions: the Texas Trans-Pecos, USA, and Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The parallels between the two regions are enlightening: both are cultural ‘crossroads’ with complex histories of migrations, group interactions, and colonial settlements. Both provide archaeological evidence of hunter-gatherer, herder, and farming peoples. Moreover, both regions are adjacent to other, better-known rock art corpuses that have been explicated using ethnographic analogy and other anthropological approaches. Using these heuristic tools, I explain some of the motivations and meanings behind the production and consumption of rock art in the Trans-Pecos and Mpumalanga. I argue that the most effective method for understanding the significance of the motifs – many of which are also found in the neighbouring regions – is to focus on ritualism, embodiment, and shamanistic belief in supernatural potency and a tiered cosmos. In Mpumalanga, I concentrate on images in 49 hunter-gatherer San (Bushman) rock art sites in and around Kruger National Park. In Texas, I investigate interactions between indigenous hunter-gatherer groups and colonizers from Europe, from Mesoamerica, and from the Plains to the north; I focus on 44 rock art sites as manifestations of indigenous ideologies. Because rock art sites are implicated in cultural identity formation, I argue that lack of theoretically informed presentation perpetuates misleading stereotypes of rock art and the indigenous people who made it. I conclude by demonstrating that presentation of rock art can and does change people’s attitudes towards the past.

The Drakensberg is the highest part of a 1000-km long escarpment that also forms a natural border between South Africa and eastern Lesotho. The uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park was declared a World Heritage site in 2000 and is globally significant, in particular due to the rock art painted by San hunter-gatherers who inhabited the area from about 8 000 years ago until the late 19th Century. Approximately 30 000 painted images can be found in nearly 600 rock shelters in the area. Rock art heritage in the Drakensberg is unfortunately being lost through a variety of processes, some natural and others resulting from human impacts. Previous research on the weathering of San paintings has focused largely on either monitoring processes causing weathering in rock shelters or investigating rock surfaces that are adjacent to the rock paintings. Recent findings indicate that some of the San art has been painted onto surfaces that were prepared by smoothing the rock surface with a “grinding stone” and coated with a clay (“ground”) layer prior to the application of pigments. This new information may have important implications for rock art conservation as smoothing of a rock surface could significantly modify the physical and chemical characteristics of the surface, thereby influencing the deterioration of the art. In this study two classification systems are developed from data collected in four rock shelters situated in the Park. The first, a Type of Surface Classification System, is developed for the purpose of identifying different types of rock surfaces within rock shelters. The second, a State of Deterioration Classification System, is developed with the purpose of establishing, through visual inspection, how deteriorated the rock art on different types of rock surfaces is. Linkages between the type of surface and the state of deterioration are also explored. Findings show that it is not only possible to determine which surface type a painting has been painted on, but that different rock surface types can deteriorate through different weathering mechanisms and to a different degree. One type of rock surface, acknowledged but not yet recorded, was found amongst the rock art paintings selected for the purpose of this study. More importantly, the alteration of rock surfaces through human action in the past is found to cause rock surfaces to deteriorate either at an accelerated or a retarded rate as opposed to rock paintings that were made on surfaces that have only been altered by natural weathering mechanisms. For example, if a rock surface has only been smoothed with a grinding stone, results show that weathering mechanisms did not deteriorate the surface as quickly as in the case where a clay ground layer has been applied to the rock surface. Different types of rock surfaces deteriorating through different weathering mechanisms (as a result of surface preparation) might have significant implications in terms of rock art conservation as the strategies implemented to conserve rock art should be adapted to consider surface type. In terms of rock art studies aiming to conserve this precious heritage, the two classification systems presented could, therefore, be useful non-destructive tools in assessing rock art deterioration. Copyright / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / MA / Unrestricted