Over the past 25 years, the role of motivation in sport has increasingly received attention in scientific research. A model that is central to this research, is Ryan and Deci’s (2000b) Self–determination Theory (SDT), which is based on the assumption that human behaviour is motivated by the extent to which it satisfies the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Surprisingly little research has been done to date on the relation between self–determination and performance among South African rugby players. An improved understanding of the role of motivation in performance among university rugby players, as well as the role of bursary awards, can generate better knowledge and may help to identify, manage and motivate players better at an early stage. The goal of this study was to explore the relation between self–determination and performance among a group of university rugby players. The first objective was to establish whether there are performance differences between players who are intrinsically motivated (IM), extrinsically motivated (EM) and amotivated. A second objective was to establish whether players who receive bursaries are more intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated or amotivated, and how this relates to their performance. Participants were an availability sample of 51 u/19 and u/21 university rugby players of the North–West University Rugby Institute who completed the Behavioural Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) (Lonsdale et al., 2008) and who were assessed in terms of performance by themselves, the principal researcher, a sport scientist and the coach. Data was analysed by means of the Spearman ranking correlation coefficient, cluster analyses, the t–test and Chi Square test, to determine the differences in terms of performance between the intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated and amotivated participants, and also between bursary holders and non–bursary holders. Because an availability sample was used, the meaningfulness of results according to effect sizes and their guiding values were determined for practical meaningfulness, rather than focusing on statistical inference and p values. Firstly, it was found that IM correlates positively and practically meaningful with autonomous EM and that it correlates negatively (small to practically visible) with controlled EM and amotivation. Autonomous and controlled EM correlate negatively, and with a small effect. These correlations in general fit appropriately in with Ryan and Deci’s (2000b) self–determination continuum. It was found that IM, autonomous EM and bursary awards correlate positively with performance, in contrast with controlled EM and amotivation. It was indicated that both IM and autonomous EM could possibly contribute to a feeling of agency and subsequently to better performance. However, it is important to note that no cause–effect deductions can be made, and that the results cannot necessarily be generalised to other rugby players. The contribution of this study is that it indicates that all forms of EM are not necessarily bad for performance, and that autonomous EM and discerning bursary awards can appropriately motivate rugby players towards performance. The exact nature and mechanism according to which autonomous EM influences performance should, however, be investigated by means of larger random samples in future research. / Thesis (M.A. (Research Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Over the past 25 years, the role of motivation in sport has increasingly received attention in scientific research. A model that is central to this research, is Ryan and Deci’s (2000b) Self–determination Theory (SDT), which is based on the assumption that human behaviour is motivated by the extent to which it satisfies the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Surprisingly little research has been done to date on the relation between self–determination and performance among South African rugby players. An improved understanding of the role of motivation in performance among university rugby players, as well as the role of bursary awards, can generate better knowledge and may help to identify, manage and motivate players better at an early stage. The goal of this study was to explore the relation between self–determination and performance among a group of university rugby players. The first objective was to establish whether there are performance differences between players who are intrinsically motivated (IM), extrinsically motivated (EM) and amotivated. A second objective was to establish whether players who receive bursaries are more intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated or amotivated, and how this relates to their performance. Participants were an availability sample of 51 u/19 and u/21 university rugby players of the North–West University Rugby Institute who completed the Behavioural Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) (Lonsdale et al., 2008) and who were assessed in terms of performance by themselves, the principal researcher, a sport scientist and the coach. Data was analysed by means of the Spearman ranking correlation coefficient, cluster analyses, the t–test and Chi Square test, to determine the differences in terms of performance between the intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated and amotivated participants, and also between bursary holders and non–bursary holders. Because an availability sample was used, the meaningfulness of results according to effect sizes and their guiding values were determined for practical meaningfulness, rather than focusing on statistical inference and p values. Firstly, it was found that IM correlates positively and practically meaningful with autonomous EM and that it correlates negatively (small to practically visible) with controlled EM and amotivation. Autonomous and controlled EM correlate negatively, and with a small effect. These correlations in general fit appropriately in with Ryan and Deci’s (2000b) self–determination continuum. It was found that IM, autonomous EM and bursary awards correlate positively with performance, in contrast with controlled EM and amotivation. It was indicated that both IM and autonomous EM could possibly contribute to a feeling of agency and subsequently to better performance. However, it is important to note that no cause–effect deductions can be made, and that the results cannot necessarily be generalised to other rugby players. The contribution of this study is that it indicates that all forms of EM are not necessarily bad for performance, and that autonomous EM and discerning bursary awards can appropriately motivate rugby players towards performance. The exact nature and mechanism according to which autonomous EM influences performance should, however, be investigated by means of larger random samples in future research. / Thesis (M.A. (Research Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The potential to track changes in training status and fitness levels of especially team sport participants by making use of more time efficient and accessible methods such as heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate recovery (HRR) cannot be overlooked and needs to be considered. However, studies that have investigated this aspect in team sport participants are scarce. It is against this background that the main objectives of this study were firstly, to determine the relationships between HRV and HRR as well as the fitness levels of a cohort of university-level rugby players. The second objective was to determine the validity of the BioForce Heart Rate Variability System to determine the HRV of a cohort of university-level rugby players. Twenty-four university-level rugby players (age: 20.1 ± 0.41 years; body stature: 182.7 ± 6.2 cm; body mass: 89.7 ± 12.7 kg) of a South African university’s Rugby Institute participated in the first part of the study. During the test day players’ fasting baseline HRV (baseline HRV) values were taken. This was followed by the measurement of the post-breakfast HRV (Pre-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV). Players were then required to perform the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) while they were fitted with a portable Cosmed K4b2 gas analyser apparatus and a Fix Polar Heart Rate Transmitter Belt. After completion of the test, HRR was taken on 1 and 3 minutes and followed by the measurement of HRV (Post-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV). For the second part of the study a group of twenty u/21 university-level rugby players (age: 20.06 ± 0.40 years; body stature: 181.8 ± 5.5 cm; body mass: 91.1 ± 10.7 kg) of a South African university’s Rugby Institute were recruited to participate in this study. HRV was measured simultaneously by the Actiheart monitor system as well as the BioForce Heart Rate Variability System over three times periods: during the morning in a fasting state just after players had woken up (baseline); in the morning just after the players ate breakfast (pre-anaerobic); after completion of a high-intensity anaerobic training session (post-anaerobic) and after completion of a 20 min recovery session (post-recovery). Significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) were found between Pre-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV and heart rate (HR) at the respiratory compensation point (RCP-HR (bpm)) (r = -0.468) as well as oxygen uptake at the RCP (RCP- 2max VO (% of 2max VO )) (r = 0.476), respectively. A forward stepwise regression analysis showed that HR at ventilatory threshold 1 (VT1-HR (bpm)) contributed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) to the post-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV with a variance of 39.8%. Final Yo-Yo IR1 level also contributed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) to 3 minute post-Yo-Yo IR1 HRR with a variance of 16.5%. For the second part of the study the majority of significant relationships (p < 0.05) between the Actiheart and Bioforce obtained HRV results were observed for the post-recovery period (Mean RR, SDNN, RMSSD and Peak LF power), followed by the pre-anaerobic period (Mean R-R and SDNN) and the baseline period (LF:HF ratio). No significant relationships were observed between the HRV results of the two apparatuses during the post-anaerobic period. In conclusion, HRV and HRR may have the potential to act as affordable and easy measurement tools of team sport participants’ fitness levels. However, the study results suggested that the BioForce Heart Rate Variability System that is used to obtain team sport participants’ HRV is especially valid to determine HRV after recovery periods that follow hard training sessions. The results do however cast a shadow of doubt over the accuracy of this apparatus when used directly after hard training sessions. / MSc (Sport Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The potential to track changes in training status and fitness levels of especially team sport participants by making use of more time efficient and accessible methods such as heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate recovery (HRR) cannot be overlooked and needs to be considered. However, studies that have investigated this aspect in team sport participants are scarce. It is against this background that the main objectives of this study were firstly, to determine the relationships between HRV and HRR as well as the fitness levels of a cohort of university-level rugby players. The second objective was to determine the validity of the BioForce Heart Rate Variability System to determine the HRV of a cohort of university-level rugby players. Twenty-four university-level rugby players (age: 20.1 ± 0.41 years; body stature: 182.7 ± 6.2 cm; body mass: 89.7 ± 12.7 kg) of a South African university’s Rugby Institute participated in the first part of the study. During the test day players’ fasting baseline HRV (baseline HRV) values were taken. This was followed by the measurement of the post-breakfast HRV (Pre-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV). Players were then required to perform the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) while they were fitted with a portable Cosmed K4b2 gas analyser apparatus and a Fix Polar Heart Rate Transmitter Belt. After completion of the test, HRR was taken on 1 and 3 minutes and followed by the measurement of HRV (Post-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV). For the second part of the study a group of twenty u/21 university-level rugby players (age: 20.06 ± 0.40 years; body stature: 181.8 ± 5.5 cm; body mass: 91.1 ± 10.7 kg) of a South African university’s Rugby Institute were recruited to participate in this study. HRV was measured simultaneously by the Actiheart monitor system as well as the BioForce Heart Rate Variability System over three times periods: during the morning in a fasting state just after players had woken up (baseline); in the morning just after the players ate breakfast (pre-anaerobic); after completion of a high-intensity anaerobic training session (post-anaerobic) and after completion of a 20 min recovery session (post-recovery). Significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) were found between Pre-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV and heart rate (HR) at the respiratory compensation point (RCP-HR (bpm)) (r = -0.468) as well as oxygen uptake at the RCP (RCP- 2max VO (% of 2max VO )) (r = 0.476), respectively. A forward stepwise regression analysis showed that HR at ventilatory threshold 1 (VT1-HR (bpm)) contributed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) to the post-Yo-Yo IR1 HRV with a variance of 39.8%. Final Yo-Yo IR1 level also contributed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) to 3 minute post-Yo-Yo IR1 HRR with a variance of 16.5%. For the second part of the study the majority of significant relationships (p < 0.05) between the Actiheart and Bioforce obtained HRV results were observed for the post-recovery period (Mean RR, SDNN, RMSSD and Peak LF power), followed by the pre-anaerobic period (Mean R-R and SDNN) and the baseline period (LF:HF ratio). No significant relationships were observed between the HRV results of the two apparatuses during the post-anaerobic period. In conclusion, HRV and HRR may have the potential to act as affordable and easy measurement tools of team sport participants’ fitness levels. However, the study results suggested that the BioForce Heart Rate Variability System that is used to obtain team sport participants’ HRV is especially valid to determine HRV after recovery periods that follow hard training sessions. The results do however cast a shadow of doubt over the accuracy of this apparatus when used directly after hard training sessions. / MSc (Sport Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014